import knwler
from importlib.metadata import version
print("knwler v{}".format(version("knwler")))knwler v1.0.11Basic API
The code below shows how to use Knwler as an API. You can take out the pipeline parts you need in your context. Note that the methods shown below are wrappers in order to make it as easy as possible to perform various tasks via a single namespace, i.e. the knwler.api import. You can import the underlying methods as well but are usually somewhat more involved.
This notebook is using Knwler v1.0.6 or above.
Install Knwler
There are various ways you can install knwler, the easiest being to use uv add knwler after running uv init in a directory. You can ensure it’s installed via something like:
Config
The various API methods accept an optional Config instance which in essence defines the LLM and its properties.
from knwler.api import Config
config = Config(backend="ollama", discovery_model="gemma3:4b", extraction_model="gemma3:12b ")Fetching data
The API allows you to fetch an arbitrary url, file or Wikipedia articles.
from knwler.api import fetch_wikipedia_page
await fetch_wikipedia_page("Python (programming language)"){'text': 'Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language. Its design philosophy emphasizes code readability with the use of significant indentation. Python is dynamically type-checked and garbage-collected. It supports multiple programming paradigms, including structured (particularly procedural), object-oriented and functional programming.\nGuido van Rossum began working on Python in the late 1980s as a successor to the ABC programming language. Python 3.0, released in 2008, was a major revision and not completely backward-compatible with earlier versions. Beginning with Python 3.5, capabilities and keywords for typing were added to the language, allowing optional static typing. As of 2026, the Python Software Foundation supports Python 3.10, 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, and 3.14, following the project\'s annual release cycle and five-year support policy. Python 3.15 is currently in the alpha development phase, and the stable release is expected to come out in October 2026. Earlier versions in the 3.x series have reached end-of-life and no longer receive security updates. \nPython has gained widespread use in the machine learning community. It is widely taught as an introductory programming language. Since 2003, Python has consistently ranked in the top ten of the most popular programming languages in the TIOBE Programming Community Index, which ranks based on searches in 24 platforms.\n\nHistory\nPython was conceived in the late 1980s by Guido van Rossum at Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands. It was designed as a successor to the ABC programming language, which was inspired by SETL, capable of exception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system. Python implementation began in December 1989. Van Rossum first released it in 1991 as Python 0.9.0. Van Rossum assumed sole responsibility for the project, as the lead developer, until 12 July 2018, when he announced his "permanent vacation" from responsibilities as Python\'s "benevolent dictator for life" (BDFL); this title was bestowed on him by the Python community to reflect his long-term commitment as the project\'s chief decision-maker. (He has since come out of retirement and is self-titled "BDFL-emeritus".) In January 2019, active Python core developers elected a five-member Steering Council to lead the project.\nThe name Python derives from the British comedy series Monty Python\'s Flying Circus. (See § Naming.)\nPython 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000, featuring many new features such as list comprehensions, cycle-detecting garbage collection, reference counting, and Unicode support. Python 2.7\'s end-of-life was initially set for 2015, and then postponed to 2020 out of concern that a large body of existing code could not easily be forward-ported to Python 3. It no longer receives security patches or updates. While Python 2.7 and older versions are officially unsupported, a different unofficial Python implementation, PyPy, continues to support Python 2, i.e., "2.7.18+" (plus 3.11), with the plus signifying (at least some) "backported security updates".\nPython 3.0 was released on 3 December 2008, and was a major revision and not completely backward-compatible with earlier versions, with some new semantics and changed syntax. Python 2.7.18, released in 2020, was the last release of Python 2. Several releases in the Python 3.x series have added new syntax to the language, and made a few (considered very minor) backward-incompatible changes.\nAs of January 2026, Python 3.14.3 is the latest stable release. All older 3.x versions had a security update down to Python 3.9.24 then again with 3.9.25, the final version in 3.9 series. Python 3.10 is, since November 2025, the oldest supported branch. Python 3.15 has an alpha released, and Android has an official downloadable executable available for Python 3.14. Releases receive two years of full support followed by three years of security support.\n\nDesign philosophy and features\nPython is a multi-paradigm programming language. Object-oriented programming and structured programming are fully supported, and many of their features support functional programming and aspect-oriented programming – including metaprogramming and metaobjects. Many other paradigms are supported via extensions, including design by contract and logic programming. Python is often referred to as a \'glue language\' because it is purposely designed to be able to integrate components written in other languages.\nPython uses dynamic typing and a combination of reference counting and a cycle-detecting garbage collector for memory management. It uses dynamic name resolution (late binding), which binds method and variable names during program execution.\nPython\'s design offers some support for functional programming in the "Lisp tradition". It has filter, map, and reduce functions; list comprehensions, dictionaries, sets, and generator expressions. The standard library has two modules (itertools and functools) that implement functional tools borrowed from Haskell and Standard ML.\nPython\'s core philosophy is summarized in the Zen of Python (PEP 20) written by Tim Peters, which includes aphorisms such as these:\n\nExplicit is better than implicit.\nSimple is better than complex.\nReadability counts.\nSpecial cases aren\'t special enough to break the rules.\nAlthough practicality beats purity, errors should never pass silently, unless explicitly silenced.\nThere should be one-- and preferably only one --obvious way to do it.\nHowever, Python has received criticism for violating these principles and adding unnecessary language bloat. Responses to these criticisms note that the Zen of Python is a guideline rather than a rule. The addition of some new features had been controversial: Guido van Rossum resigned as Benevolent Dictator for Life after conflict about adding the assignment expression operator in Python 3.8.\nNevertheless, rather than building all functionality into its core, Python was designed to be highly extensible via modules. This compact modularity has made it particularly popular as a means of adding programmable interfaces to existing applications. Van Rossum\'s vision of a small core language with a large standard library and easily extensible interpreter stemmed from his frustrations with ABC, which represented the opposite approach.\nPython claims to strive for a simpler, less-cluttered syntax and grammar, while giving developers a choice in their coding methodology. Python lacks do .. while loops, which Rossum considered harmful. In contrast to Perl\'s motto "there is more than one way to do it", Python advocates an approach where "there should be one – and preferably only one – obvious way to do it". In practice, however, Python provides many ways to achieve a given goal. There are at least three ways to format a string literal, with no certainty as to which one a programmer should use. Alex Martelli is a Fellow at the Python Software Foundation and Python book author; he wrote that "To describe something as \'clever\' is not considered a compliment in the Python culture."\nPython\'s developers typically prioritize readability over performance. For example, they reject patches to non-critical parts of the CPython reference implementation that would offer increases in speed that do not justify the cost of clarity and readability. Execution speed can be improved by moving speed-critical functions to extension modules written in languages such as C, or by using a just-in-time compiler like PyPy. Also, it is possible to transpile to other languages. However, this approach either fails to achieve the expected speed-up, since Python is a very dynamic language, or only a restricted subset of Python is compiled (with potential minor semantic changes).\nPython is meant to be a fun language to use. This goal is reflected in the name – a tribute to the British comedy group Monty Python – and in playful approaches to some tutorials and reference materials. For instance, some code examples use the terms "spam" and "eggs" (in reference to a Monty Python sketch), rather than the typical terms "foo" and "bar".\nA common neologism in the Python community is pythonic, which has a broad range of meanings related to program style: Pythonic code may use Python idioms well; be natural or show fluency in the language; or conform with Python\'s minimalist philosophy and emphasis on readability.\n\nSyntax and semantics\nPython is meant to be an easily readable language. Its formatting is visually uncluttered and often uses English keywords where other languages use punctuation. Unlike many other languages, it does not use curly brackets to delimit blocks, and semicolons after statements are allowed but rarely used. It has fewer syntactic exceptions and special cases than C or Pascal.\n\nIndentation\nPython uses whitespace indentation, rather than curly brackets or keywords, to delimit blocks. An increase in indentation comes after certain statements; a decrease in indentation signifies the end of the current block. Thus, the program\'s visual structure accurately represents its semantic structure. This feature is sometimes termed the off-side rule. Some other languages use indentation this way; but in most, indentation has no semantic meaning. The recommended indent size is four spaces.\n\nStatements and control flow\nPython\'s statements include the following:\n\nThe assignment statement, using a single equals sign =\nThe if statement, which conditionally executes a block of code, along with else and elif (a contraction of else if)\nThe for statement, which iterates over an iterable object, capturing each element to a variable for use by the attached block; the variable is not deleted when the loop finishes\nThe while statement, which executes a block of code as long as boolean condition is true\nThe try statement, which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block to be caught and handled by except clauses (or new syntax except* in Python 3.11 for exception groups); the try statement also ensures that clean-up code in a finally block is always run regardless of how the block exits\nThe raise statement, used to raise a specified exception or re-raise a caught exception\nThe class statement, which executes a block of code and attaches its local namespace to a class, for use in object-oriented programming\nThe def statement, which defines a function or method\nThe with statement, which encloses a code block within a context manager, allowing resource-acquisition-is-initialization (RAII)-like behavior and replacing a common try/finally idiom Examples of a context include acquiring a lock before some code is run, and then releasing the lock; or opening and then closing a file\nThe break statement, which exits a loop\nThe continue statement, which skips the rest of the current iteration and continues with the next\nThe del statement, which removes a variable—deleting the reference from the name to the value, and producing an error if the variable is referred to before it is redefined\nThe pass statement, serving as a NOP (i.e., no operation), which is syntactically needed to create an empty code block\nThe assert statement, used in debugging to check for conditions that should apply\nThe yield statement, which returns a value from a generator function (and also an operator); used to implement coroutines\nThe return statement, used to return a value from a function\nThe import and from statements, used to import modules whose functions or variables can be used in the current program\nThe match and case statements, analogous to a switch statement construct, which compares an expression against one or more cases as a control-flow measure\nThe assignment statement (=) binds a name as a reference to a separate, dynamically allocated object. Variables may subsequently be rebound at any time to any object. In Python, a variable name is a generic reference holder without a fixed data type; however, it always refers to some object with a type. This is called dynamic typing—in contrast to statically-typed languages, where each variable may contain only a value of a certain type.\nPython does not support tail call optimization or first-class continuations; according to Van Rossum, the language never will. However, better support for coroutine-like functionality is provided by extending Python\'s generators. Before 2.5, generators were lazy iterators; data was passed unidirectionally out of the generator. From Python 2.5 on, it is possible to pass data back into a generator function; and from version 3.3, data can be passed through multiple stack levels.\n\nExpressions\nPython\'s expressions include the following:\n\nThe +, -, and * operators for mathematical addition, subtraction, and multiplication are similar to other languages, but the behavior of division differs. There are two types of division in Python: floor division (or integer division) //, and floating-point division /. Python uses the ** operator for exponentiation.\nPython uses the + operator for string concatenation. The language uses the * operator for duplicating a string a specified number of times.\nThe @ infix operator is intended to be used by libraries such as NumPy for matrix multiplication.\nThe syntax :=, called the "walrus operator", was introduced in Python 3.8. This operator assigns values to variables as part of a larger expression.\nIn Python, == compares two objects by value. Python\'s is operator may be used to compare object identities (i.e., comparison by reference), and comparisons may be chained—for example, a <= b <= c.\nPython uses and, or, and not as Boolean operators.\nPython has a type of expression called a list comprehension, and a more general expression called a generator expression.\nAnonymous functions are implemented using lambda expressions; however, there may be only one expression in each body.\nConditional expressions are written as x if c else y. (This is different in operand order from the c ? x : y operator common to many other languages.)\nPython makes a distinction between lists and tuples. Lists are written as [1, 2, 3], are mutable, and cannot be used as the keys of dictionaries (since dictionary keys must be immutable in Python). Tuples, written as (1, 2, 3), are immutable and thus can be used as the keys of dictionaries, provided that all of the tuple\'s elements are immutable. The + operator can be used to concatenate two tuples, which does not directly modify their contents, but produces a new tuple containing the elements of both. For example, given the variable t initially equal to (1, 2, 3), executing t = t + (4, 5) first evaluates t + (4, 5), which yields (1, 2, 3, 4, 5); this result is then assigned back to t—thereby effectively "modifying the contents" of t while conforming to the immutable nature of tuple objects. Parentheses are optional for tuples in unambiguous contexts.\nPython features sequence unpacking where multiple expressions, each evaluating to something assignable (e.g., a variable or a writable property) are associated just as in forming tuple literal; as a whole, the results are then put on the left-hand side of the equal sign in an assignment statement. This statement expects an iterable object on the right-hand side of the equal sign to produce the same number of values as the writable expressions on the left-hand side; while iterating, the statement assigns each of the values produced on the right to the corresponding expression on the left.\nPython has a "string format" operator % that functions analogously to printf format strings in the C language—e.g. "spam=%s eggs=%d" % ("blah", 2) evaluates to "spam=blah eggs=2". In Python 2.6+ and 3+, this operator was supplemented by the format() method of the str class, e.g., "spam={0} eggs={1}".format("blah", 2). Python 3.6 added "f-strings": spam = "blah"; eggs = 2; f\'spam={spam} eggs={eggs}\'.\nStrings in Python can be concatenated by "adding" them (using the same operator as for adding integers and floats); e.g., "spam" + "eggs" returns "spameggs". If strings contain numbers, they are concatenated as strings rather than as integers, e.g. "2" + "2" returns "22".\nPython supports string literals in several ways:\nDelimited by single or double quotation marks; single and double quotation marks have equivalent functionality (unlike in Unix shells, Perl, and Perl-influenced languages). Both marks use the backslash (\\) as an escape character. String interpolation became available in Python 3.6 as "formatted string literals".\nTriple-quoted, i.e., starting and ending with three single or double quotation marks; this may span multiple lines and function like here documents in shells, Perl, and Ruby.\nRaw string varieties, denoted by prefixing the string literal with r. Escape sequences are not interpreted; hence raw strings are useful where literal backslashes are common, such as in regular expressions and Windows-style paths. (Compare "@-quoting" in C#.)\nPython has array index and array slicing expressions in lists, which are written as a[key], a[start:stop] or a[start:stop:step]. Indexes are zero-based, and negative indexes are relative to the end. Slices take elements from the start index up to, but not including, the stop index. The (optional) third slice parameter, called step or stride, allows elements to be skipped or reversed. Slice indexes may be omitted—for example, a[:] returns a copy of the entire list. Each element of a slice is a shallow copy.\nIn Python, a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly enforced, in contrast to languages such as Common Lisp, Scheme, or Ruby. This distinction leads to duplicating some functionality, for example:\n\nList comprehensions vs. for-loops\nConditional expressions vs. if blocks\nThe eval() vs. exec() built-in functions (in Python 2, exec is a statement); the former function is for expressions, while the latter is for statements\nA statement cannot be part of an expression; because of this restriction, expressions such as list and dict comprehensions (and lambda expressions) cannot contain statements. As a particular case, an assignment statement such as a = 1 cannot be part of the conditional expression of a conditional statement.\n\nTyping\nPython uses duck typing, and it has typed objects but untyped variable names. Type constraints are not checked at definition time; rather, operations on an object may fail at usage time, indicating that the object is not of an appropriate type. Despite being dynamically typed, Python is strongly typed, forbidding operations that are poorly defined (e.g., adding a number and a string) rather than quietly attempting to interpret them.\nPython allows programmers to define their own types using classes, most often for object-oriented programming. New instances of classes are constructed by calling the class, for example, SpamClass() or EggsClass()); the classes are instances of the metaclass type (which is an instance of itself), thereby allowing metaprogramming and reflection.\nBefore version 3.0, Python had two kinds of classes, both using the same syntax: old-style and new-style. Current Python versions support the semantics of only the new style.\nPython supports optional type annotations. These annotations are not enforced by the language, but may be used by external tools such as mypy to catch errors. Python includes a module typing including several type names for type annotations. Also, mypy supports a Python compiler called mypyc, which leverages type annotations for optimization.\n\nArithmetic operations\nPython includes conventional symbols for arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /), the floor-division operator //, and the modulo operator %. (With the modulo operator, a remainder can be negative, e.g., 4 % -3 == -2.) Also, Python offers the ** symbol for exponentiation, e.g. 5**3 == 125 and 9**0.5 == 3.0. Also, it offers the matrix‑multiplication operator @ . These operators work as in traditional mathematics; with the same precedence rules, the infix operators + and - can also be unary, to represent positive and negative numbers respectively.\nDivision between integers produces floating-point results. The behavior of division has changed significantly over time:\n\nThe current version of Python (i.e., since 3.0) changed the / operator to always represent floating-point division, e.g., 5/2 == 2.5.\nThe floor division // operator was introduced, meaning that 7//3 == 2, -7//3 == -3, 7.5//3 == 2.0, and -7.5//3 == -3.0. For Python 2.7, adding the from __future__ import division statement allows a module in Python 2.7 to use Python 3.x rules for division (see above).\nIn Python terms, the / operator represents true division (or simply division), while the // operator represents floor division. Before version 3.0, the / operator represents classic division.\nRounding towards negative infinity, though a different method than in most languages, adds consistency to Python. For instance, this rounding implies that the equation (a + b)//b == a//b + 1 is always true. Also, the rounding implies that the equation b*(a//b) + a%b == a is valid for both positive and negative values of a. As expected, the result of a%b lies in the half-open interval [0, b), where b is a positive integer; however, maintaining the validity of the equation requires that the result must lie in the interval (b, 0] when b is negative.\nPython provides a round function for rounding a float to the nearest integer. For tie-breaking, Python 3 uses the round to even method: round(1.5) and round(2.5) both produce 2. Python versions before 3 used the round-away-from-zero method: round(0.5) is 1.0, and round(-0.5) is −1.0.\nPython allows Boolean expressions that contain multiple equality relations to be consistent with general usage in mathematics. For example, the expression a < b < c tests whether a is less than b and b is less than c. C-derived languages interpret this expression differently: in C, the expression would first evaluate a < b, resulting in 0 or 1, and that result would then be compared with c.\nPython uses arbitrary-precision arithmetic for all integer operations. The Decimal type/class in the decimal module provides decimal floating-point numbers to a pre-defined arbitrary precision with several rounding modes. The Fraction class in the fractions module provides arbitrary precision for rational numbers.\nDue to Python\'s extensive mathematics library and the third-party library NumPy, the language is frequently used for scientific scripting in tasks such as numerical data processing and manipulation.\n\nFunction syntax\nFunctions are created in Python by using the def keyword. A function is defined similarly to how it is called, by first providing the function name and then the required parameters. Here is an example of a function that prints its inputs:\n\nTo assign a default value to a function parameter in case no actual value is provided at run time, variable-definition syntax can be used inside the function header.\n\nCode examples\n"Hello, World!" program:\n\nProgram to calculate the factorial of a non-negative integer:\n\nLibraries\nPython\'s large standard library is commonly cited as one of its greatest strengths. For Internet-facing applications, many standard formats and protocols such as MIME and HTTP are supported. The language includes modules for creating graphical user interfaces, connecting to relational databases, generating pseudorandom numbers, arithmetic with arbitrary-precision decimals, manipulating regular expressions, and unit testing.\nSome parts of the standard library are covered by specifications—for example, the Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) implementation wsgiref follows PEP 333—but most parts are specified by their code, internal documentation, and test suites. However, because most of the standard library is cross-platform Python code, only a few modules must be altered or rewritten for variant implementations.\nAs of 13 March 2025, the Python Package Index (PyPI), the official repository for third-party Python software, contains over 614,339 packages.\n\nDevelopment environments\nMost Python implementations (including CPython) include a read–eval–print loop (REPL); this permits the environment to function as a command line interpreter, with which users enter statements sequentially and receive results immediately.\nAlso, CPython is bundled with an integrated development environment (IDE) called IDLE, which is oriented toward beginners.\nOther shells, including IDLE and IPython, add additional capabilities such as improved auto-completion, session-state retention, and syntax highlighting.\nStandard desktop IDEs include PyCharm, Spyder, and Visual Studio Code; there are web browser-based IDEs, such as the following environments:\n\nJupyter Notebooks, an open-source interactive computing platform;\nPythonAnywhere, a browser-based IDE and hosting environment; and\nCanopy, a commercial IDE from Enthought that emphasizes scientific computing.\n\nImplementations\nReference implementation\nCPython is the reference implementation of Python. This implementation is written in C, meeting the C11 standard since version 3.11. Older versions use the C89 standard with several select C99 features, but third-party extensions are not limited to older C versions—e.g., they can be implemented using C11 or C++. CPython compiles Python programs into an intermediate bytecode, which is then executed by a virtual machine. CPython is distributed with a large standard library written in a combination of C and native Python.\nCPython is available for many platforms, including Windows and most modern Unix-like systems, including macOS (and Apple M1 Macs, since Python 3.9.1, using an experimental installer). Starting with Python 3.9, the Python installer intentionally fails to install on Windows 7 and 8; Windows XP was supported until Python 3.5, with unofficial support for VMS. Platform portability was one of Python\'s earliest priorities. During development of Python 1 and 2, even OS/2 and Solaris were supported; since that time, support has been dropped for many platforms.\nAll current Python versions (since 3.7) support only operating systems that feature multithreading, by now supporting not nearly as many operating systems (dropping many outdated) than in the past.\n\nLimitations of the reference implementation\nThe energy usage of Python with CPython for typically written code is much worse than C by a factor of 75.88.\nThe throughput of Python with CPython for typically written code is worse than C by a factor of 71.9.\nThe average memory usage of CPython for typically written code is worse than C by a factor of 2.4.\n\nOther implementations\nAll alternative implementations have at least slightly different semantics. For example, an alternative may include unordered dictionaries, in contrast to other current Python versions. As another example in the larger Python ecosystem, PyPy does not support the full C Python API.\nCreating an executable with Python often is done by bundling an entire Python interpreter into the executable, which causes binary sizes to be massive for small programs, yet there exist implementations that are capable of truly compiling Python. Alternative implementations include the following:\n\nPyPy is a faster, compliant interpreter of Python 2.7 and 3.10. PyPy\'s just-in-time compiler often improves speed significantly relative to CPython, but PyPy does not support some libraries written in C. PyPy offers support for the RISC-V instruction-set architecture.\nCodon is an implementation with an ahead-of-time (AOT) compiler, which compiles a statically-typed Python-like language whose "syntax and semantics are nearly identical to Python\'s, there are some notable differences" For example, Codon uses 64-bit machine integers for speed, not arbitrarily as with Python; Codon developers claim that speedups over CPython are usually on the order of ten to a hundred times. Codon compiles to machine code (via LLVM) and supports native multithreading. Codon can also compile to Python extension modules that can be imported and used from Python.\nMicroPython and CircuitPython are Python 3 variants that are optimized for microcontrollers, including the Lego Mindstorms EV3.\nPyston is a variant of the Python runtime that uses just-in-time compilation to speed up execution of Python programs.\nCinder is a performance-oriented fork of CPython 3.8 that features a number of optimizations, including bytecode inline caching, eager evaluation of coroutines, a method-at-a-time JIT, and an experimental bytecode compiler.\nThe Snek embedded computing language "is Python-inspired, but it is not Python. It is possible to write Snek programs that run under a full Python system, but most Python programs will not run under Snek." Snek is compatible with 8-bit AVR microcontrollers such as ATmega 328P-based Arduino, as well as larger microcontrollers that are compatible with MicroPython. Snek is an imperative language that (unlike Python) omits object-oriented programming. Snek supports only one numeric data type, which features 32-bit single precision (resembling JavaScript numbers, though smaller).\n\nUnsupported implementations\nStackless Python is a significant fork of CPython that implements microthreads. This implementation uses the call stack differently, thus allowing massively concurrent programs. PyPy also offers a stackless version.\nJust-in-time Python compilers have been developed, but are now unsupported:\n\nGoogle began a project named Unladen Swallow in 2009: this project aimed to speed up the Python interpreter five-fold by using LLVM, and improve multithreading capability for scaling to thousands of cores, while typical implementations are limited by the global interpreter lock.\nPsyco is a discontinued just-in-time specializing compiler, which integrates with CPython and transforms bytecode to machine code at runtime. The emitted code is specialized for certain data types and is faster than standard Python code. Psyco does not support Python 2.7 or later.\nPyS60 was a Python 2 interpreter for Series 60 mobile phones, which was released by Nokia in 2005. The interpreter implemented many modules from Python\'s standard library, as well as additional modules for integration with the Symbian operating system. The Nokia N900 also supports Python through the GTK widget library, allowing programs to be written and run on the target device.\n\nTranspilers to other languages\nThere are several compilers/transpilers to high-level object languages; the source language is unrestricted Python, a subset of Python, or a language similar to Python:\n\nBrython and Transcrypt compile Python to JavaScript.\nCython compiles a superset of Python to C. The resulting code can be used with Python via direct C-level API calls into the Python interpreter.\nPyJL compiles/transpiles a subset of Python to "human-readable, maintainable, and high-performance Julia source code". Despite the developers\' performance claims, this is not possible for arbitrary Python code; that is, compiling to a faster language or machine code is known to be impossible in the general case. The semantics of Python might potentially be changed, but in many cases speedup is possible with few or no changes in the Python code. The faster Julia source code can then be used from Python or compiled to machine code.\nNuitka compiles Python into C. This compiler works with Python 3.4 to 3.13 (and 2.6 and 2.7) for Python\'s main supported platforms (and Windows 7 or even Windows XP) and for Android. The compiler developers claim full support for Python 3.10, partial support for Python 3.11 and 3.12, and experimental support for Python 3.13. Nuitka supports macOS including Apple Silicon-based versions. The compiler is free of cost, though it has commercial add-ons (e.g., for hiding source code).\nNumba is a JIT compiler that is used from Python; the compiler translates a subset of Python and NumPy code into fast machine code. This tool is enabled by adding a decorator to the relevant Python code.\nPythran compiles a subset of Python 3 to C++ (C++11).\nRPython can be compiled to C, and it is used to build the PyPy interpreter for Python.\nThe Python → 11l → C++ transpiler compiles a subset of Python 3 to C++ (C++17).\nThere are also specialized compilers:\n\nMyHDL is a Python-based hardware description language (HDL) that converts MyHDL code to Verilog or VHDL code.\nSome older projects existed, as well as compilers not designed for use with Python 3.x and related syntax:\n\nGoogle\'s Grumpy transpiles Python 2 to Go. The latest release was in 2017.\nIronPython allows running Python 2.7 programs with the .NET Common Language Runtime. An alpha version (released in 2021), is available for "Python 3.4, although features and behaviors from later versions may be included."\nJython compiles Python 2.7 to Java bytecode, allowing the use of Java libraries from a Python program.\nPyrex (last released in 2010) and Shed Skin (last released in 2013) compile to C and C++ respectively.\n\nPerformance\nA performance comparison among various Python implementations, using a non-numerical (combinatorial) workload, was presented at EuroSciPy \'13. In addition, Python\'s performance relative to other programming languages is benchmarked by The Computer Language Benchmarks Game.\nThere are several approaches to optimizing Python performance, despite the inherent slowness of an interpreted language. These approaches include the following strategies or tools:\n\nJust-in-time compilation: Dynamically compiling parts of a Python program during the execution of the program. This technique is used in libraries such as Numba and PyPy.\nStatic compilation: Sometimes, Python code can be compiled into machine code sometime before execution. An example of this approach is Cython, which compiles Python into C.\nConcurrency and parallelism: Multiple tasks can be run simultaneously. Python contains modules such as `multiprocessing` to support this form of parallelism. Moreover, this approach helps to overcome limitations of the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) in CPU tasks.\nEfficient data structures: Performance can also be improved by using data types such as Set for membership tests, or deque from collections for queue operations.\nPerformance gains can be observed by utilizing libraries such as NumPy. Most high performance Python libraries use C or Fortran under the hood instead of the Python interpreter.\n\nLanguage development\nPython\'s development is conducted mostly through the Python Enhancement Proposal (PEP) process; this process is the primary mechanism for proposing major new features, collecting community input on issues, and documenting Python design decisions. Python coding style is covered in PEP 8. Outstanding PEPs are reviewed and commented on by the Python community and the steering council.\nEnhancement of the language corresponds with development of the CPython reference implementation. The mailing list python-dev is the primary forum for the language\'s development. Specific issues were originally discussed in the Roundup bug tracker hosted by the foundation. In 2022, all issues and discussions were migrated to GitHub. Development originally took place on a self-hosted source-code repository running Mercurial, until Python moved to GitHub in January 2017.\nCPython\'s public releases have three types, distinguished by which part of the version number is incremented:\n\nBackward-incompatible versions, where code is expected to break and must be manually ported. The first part of the version number is incremented. These releases happen infrequently—version 3.0 was released 8 years after 2.0. According to Guido van Rossum, a version 4.0 will probably never exist.\nMajor or "feature" releases are largely compatible with the previous version but introduce new features. The second part of the version number is incremented. Starting with Python 3.9, these releases are expected to occur annually. Each major version is supported by bug fixes for several years after its release.\nBug fix releases, which introduce no new features, occur approximately every three months; these releases are made when a sufficient number of bugs have been fixed upstream since the last release. Security vulnerabilities are also patched in these releases. The third and final part of the version number is incremented.\nMany alpha, beta, and release-candidates are also released as previews and for testing before final releases. Although there is a rough schedule for releases, they are often delayed if the code is not ready yet. Python\'s development team monitors the state of the code by running a large unit test suite during development.\nThe major academic conference on Python is PyCon. Also, there are special Python mentoring programs, such as PyLadies.\n\nNaming\nPython\'s name is inspired by the British comedy group Monty Python, whom Python creator Guido van Rossum enjoyed while developing the language. Monty Python references appear frequently in Python code and culture; for example, the metasyntactic variables often used in Python literature are spam and eggs, rather than the traditional foo and bar. Also, the official Python documentation contains various references to Monty Python routines. Python users are sometimes referred to as "Pythonistas".\n\nLanguages influenced by Python\nCobra has an Acknowledgements document that lists Python first among influencing languages.\nECMAScript and JavaScript borrowed iterators and generators from Python.\nGo is designed for "speed of working in a dynamic language like Python".\nJulia was designed to be "as usable for general programming as Python".\nMojo is almost a superset of Python.\nGDScript is strongly influenced by Python.\n Groovy, Boo, CoffeeScript, F#, Nim, Ruby, Swift, and V have been influenced, as well.\n\nSee also\nList of Python programming books\npip (package manager) (see also uv)\nPydoc\nNumPy\nSciPy\nJupyter\nPyTorch\nCython\nCPython\nMojo\nPygame\nPyQt\nPyGTK\nPyPy\nPyCon\nGoogle Colab – zero setup online IDE that runs Python\nRen\'Py\n\nNotes\nReferences\nSources\n"Python for Artificial Intelligence". Python Wiki. 19 July 2012. Archived from the original on 1 November 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2012.\nPaine, Jocelyn, ed. (August 2005). "AI in Python". AI Expert Newsletter. Amzi!. Archived from the original on 26 March 2012. Retrieved 11 February 2012.\n"PyAIML 0.8.5: Python Package Index". Pypi.python.org. Retrieved 17 July 2013.\nRussell, Stuart J. & Norvig, Peter (2009). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-604259-4.\n\nFurther reading\nDowney, Allen (July 2024). Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist (3rd ed.). O\'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1-0981-5543-8.\nLutz, Mark (2013). Learning Python (5th ed.). O\'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-15806-4.\nSummerfield, Mark (2009). Programming in Python 3 (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley Professional. ISBN 978-0-321-68056-3.\nRamalho, Luciano (May 2022). Fluent Python. O\'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1-4920-5632-4.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nPython documentation\nThe Python Tutorial',
'name': 'Python (programming language)',
'id': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)',
'description': "Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language. Its design philosophy emphasizes code readability with the use of significant indentation. Python is dynamically type-checked and garbage-collected. It supports multiple programming paradigms, including structured (particularly procedural), object-oriented and functional programming.\nGuido van Rossum began working on Python in the late 1980s as a successor to the ABC programming language. Python 3.0, released in 2008, was a major revision and not completely backward-compatible with earlier versions. Beginning with Python 3.5, capabilities and keywords for typing were added to the language, allowing optional static typing. As of 2026, the Python Software Foundation supports Python 3.10, 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, and 3.14, following the project's annual release cycle and five-year support policy. Python 3.15 is currently in the alpha development phase, and the stable release is expected to come out in October 2026. Earlier versions in the 3.x series have reached end-of-life and no longer receive security updates. \nPython has gained widespread use in the machine learning community. It is widely taught as an introductory programming language. Since 2003, Python has consistently ranked in the top ten of the most popular programming languages in the TIOBE Programming Community Index, which ranks based on searches in 24 platforms.",
'content': 'Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language. Its design philosophy emphasizes code readability with the use of significant indentation. Python is dynamically type-checked and garbage-collected. It supports multiple programming paradigms, including structured (particularly procedural), object-oriented and functional programming.\nGuido van Rossum began working on Python in the late 1980s as a successor to the ABC programming language. Python 3.0, released in 2008, was a major revision and not completely backward-compatible with earlier versions. Beginning with Python 3.5, capabilities and keywords for typing were added to the language, allowing optional static typing. As of 2026, the Python Software Foundation supports Python 3.10, 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, and 3.14, following the project\'s annual release cycle and five-year support policy. Python 3.15 is currently in the alpha development phase, and the stable release is expected to come out in October 2026. Earlier versions in the 3.x series have reached end-of-life and no longer receive security updates. \nPython has gained widespread use in the machine learning community. It is widely taught as an introductory programming language. Since 2003, Python has consistently ranked in the top ten of the most popular programming languages in the TIOBE Programming Community Index, which ranks based on searches in 24 platforms.\n\nHistory\nPython was conceived in the late 1980s by Guido van Rossum at Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands. It was designed as a successor to the ABC programming language, which was inspired by SETL, capable of exception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system. Python implementation began in December 1989. Van Rossum first released it in 1991 as Python 0.9.0. Van Rossum assumed sole responsibility for the project, as the lead developer, until 12 July 2018, when he announced his "permanent vacation" from responsibilities as Python\'s "benevolent dictator for life" (BDFL); this title was bestowed on him by the Python community to reflect his long-term commitment as the project\'s chief decision-maker. (He has since come out of retirement and is self-titled "BDFL-emeritus".) In January 2019, active Python core developers elected a five-member Steering Council to lead the project.\nThe name Python derives from the British comedy series Monty Python\'s Flying Circus. (See § Naming.)\nPython 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000, featuring many new features such as list comprehensions, cycle-detecting garbage collection, reference counting, and Unicode support. Python 2.7\'s end-of-life was initially set for 2015, and then postponed to 2020 out of concern that a large body of existing code could not easily be forward-ported to Python 3. It no longer receives security patches or updates. While Python 2.7 and older versions are officially unsupported, a different unofficial Python implementation, PyPy, continues to support Python 2, i.e., "2.7.18+" (plus 3.11), with the plus signifying (at least some) "backported security updates".\nPython 3.0 was released on 3 December 2008, and was a major revision and not completely backward-compatible with earlier versions, with some new semantics and changed syntax. Python 2.7.18, released in 2020, was the last release of Python 2. Several releases in the Python 3.x series have added new syntax to the language, and made a few (considered very minor) backward-incompatible changes.\nAs of January 2026, Python 3.14.3 is the latest stable release. All older 3.x versions had a security update down to Python 3.9.24 then again with 3.9.25, the final version in 3.9 series. Python 3.10 is, since November 2025, the oldest supported branch. Python 3.15 has an alpha released, and Android has an official downloadable executable available for Python 3.14. Releases receive two years of full support followed by three years of security support.\n\nDesign philosophy and features\nPython is a multi-paradigm programming language. Object-oriented programming and structured programming are fully supported, and many of their features support functional programming and aspect-oriented programming – including metaprogramming and metaobjects. Many other paradigms are supported via extensions, including design by contract and logic programming. Python is often referred to as a \'glue language\' because it is purposely designed to be able to integrate components written in other languages.\nPython uses dynamic typing and a combination of reference counting and a cycle-detecting garbage collector for memory management. It uses dynamic name resolution (late binding), which binds method and variable names during program execution.\nPython\'s design offers some support for functional programming in the "Lisp tradition". It has filter, map, and reduce functions; list comprehensions, dictionaries, sets, and generator expressions. The standard library has two modules (itertools and functools) that implement functional tools borrowed from Haskell and Standard ML.\nPython\'s core philosophy is summarized in the Zen of Python (PEP 20) written by Tim Peters, which includes aphorisms such as these:\n\nExplicit is better than implicit.\nSimple is better than complex.\nReadability counts.\nSpecial cases aren\'t special enough to break the rules.\nAlthough practicality beats purity, errors should never pass silently, unless explicitly silenced.\nThere should be one-- and preferably only one --obvious way to do it.\nHowever, Python has received criticism for violating these principles and adding unnecessary language bloat. Responses to these criticisms note that the Zen of Python is a guideline rather than a rule. The addition of some new features had been controversial: Guido van Rossum resigned as Benevolent Dictator for Life after conflict about adding the assignment expression operator in Python 3.8.\nNevertheless, rather than building all functionality into its core, Python was designed to be highly extensible via modules. This compact modularity has made it particularly popular as a means of adding programmable interfaces to existing applications. Van Rossum\'s vision of a small core language with a large standard library and easily extensible interpreter stemmed from his frustrations with ABC, which represented the opposite approach.\nPython claims to strive for a simpler, less-cluttered syntax and grammar, while giving developers a choice in their coding methodology. Python lacks do .. while loops, which Rossum considered harmful. In contrast to Perl\'s motto "there is more than one way to do it", Python advocates an approach where "there should be one – and preferably only one – obvious way to do it". In practice, however, Python provides many ways to achieve a given goal. There are at least three ways to format a string literal, with no certainty as to which one a programmer should use. Alex Martelli is a Fellow at the Python Software Foundation and Python book author; he wrote that "To describe something as \'clever\' is not considered a compliment in the Python culture."\nPython\'s developers typically prioritize readability over performance. For example, they reject patches to non-critical parts of the CPython reference implementation that would offer increases in speed that do not justify the cost of clarity and readability. Execution speed can be improved by moving speed-critical functions to extension modules written in languages such as C, or by using a just-in-time compiler like PyPy. Also, it is possible to transpile to other languages. However, this approach either fails to achieve the expected speed-up, since Python is a very dynamic language, or only a restricted subset of Python is compiled (with potential minor semantic changes).\nPython is meant to be a fun language to use. This goal is reflected in the name – a tribute to the British comedy group Monty Python – and in playful approaches to some tutorials and reference materials. For instance, some code examples use the terms "spam" and "eggs" (in reference to a Monty Python sketch), rather than the typical terms "foo" and "bar".\nA common neologism in the Python community is pythonic, which has a broad range of meanings related to program style: Pythonic code may use Python idioms well; be natural or show fluency in the language; or conform with Python\'s minimalist philosophy and emphasis on readability.\n\nSyntax and semantics\nPython is meant to be an easily readable language. Its formatting is visually uncluttered and often uses English keywords where other languages use punctuation. Unlike many other languages, it does not use curly brackets to delimit blocks, and semicolons after statements are allowed but rarely used. It has fewer syntactic exceptions and special cases than C or Pascal.\n\nIndentation\nPython uses whitespace indentation, rather than curly brackets or keywords, to delimit blocks. An increase in indentation comes after certain statements; a decrease in indentation signifies the end of the current block. Thus, the program\'s visual structure accurately represents its semantic structure. This feature is sometimes termed the off-side rule. Some other languages use indentation this way; but in most, indentation has no semantic meaning. The recommended indent size is four spaces.\n\nStatements and control flow\nPython\'s statements include the following:\n\nThe assignment statement, using a single equals sign =\nThe if statement, which conditionally executes a block of code, along with else and elif (a contraction of else if)\nThe for statement, which iterates over an iterable object, capturing each element to a variable for use by the attached block; the variable is not deleted when the loop finishes\nThe while statement, which executes a block of code as long as boolean condition is true\nThe try statement, which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block to be caught and handled by except clauses (or new syntax except* in Python 3.11 for exception groups); the try statement also ensures that clean-up code in a finally block is always run regardless of how the block exits\nThe raise statement, used to raise a specified exception or re-raise a caught exception\nThe class statement, which executes a block of code and attaches its local namespace to a class, for use in object-oriented programming\nThe def statement, which defines a function or method\nThe with statement, which encloses a code block within a context manager, allowing resource-acquisition-is-initialization (RAII)-like behavior and replacing a common try/finally idiom Examples of a context include acquiring a lock before some code is run, and then releasing the lock; or opening and then closing a file\nThe break statement, which exits a loop\nThe continue statement, which skips the rest of the current iteration and continues with the next\nThe del statement, which removes a variable—deleting the reference from the name to the value, and producing an error if the variable is referred to before it is redefined\nThe pass statement, serving as a NOP (i.e., no operation), which is syntactically needed to create an empty code block\nThe assert statement, used in debugging to check for conditions that should apply\nThe yield statement, which returns a value from a generator function (and also an operator); used to implement coroutines\nThe return statement, used to return a value from a function\nThe import and from statements, used to import modules whose functions or variables can be used in the current program\nThe match and case statements, analogous to a switch statement construct, which compares an expression against one or more cases as a control-flow measure\nThe assignment statement (=) binds a name as a reference to a separate, dynamically allocated object. Variables may subsequently be rebound at any time to any object. In Python, a variable name is a generic reference holder without a fixed data type; however, it always refers to some object with a type. This is called dynamic typing—in contrast to statically-typed languages, where each variable may contain only a value of a certain type.\nPython does not support tail call optimization or first-class continuations; according to Van Rossum, the language never will. However, better support for coroutine-like functionality is provided by extending Python\'s generators. Before 2.5, generators were lazy iterators; data was passed unidirectionally out of the generator. From Python 2.5 on, it is possible to pass data back into a generator function; and from version 3.3, data can be passed through multiple stack levels.\n\nExpressions\nPython\'s expressions include the following:\n\nThe +, -, and * operators for mathematical addition, subtraction, and multiplication are similar to other languages, but the behavior of division differs. There are two types of division in Python: floor division (or integer division) //, and floating-point division /. Python uses the ** operator for exponentiation.\nPython uses the + operator for string concatenation. The language uses the * operator for duplicating a string a specified number of times.\nThe @ infix operator is intended to be used by libraries such as NumPy for matrix multiplication.\nThe syntax :=, called the "walrus operator", was introduced in Python 3.8. This operator assigns values to variables as part of a larger expression.\nIn Python, == compares two objects by value. Python\'s is operator may be used to compare object identities (i.e., comparison by reference), and comparisons may be chained—for example, a <= b <= c.\nPython uses and, or, and not as Boolean operators.\nPython has a type of expression called a list comprehension, and a more general expression called a generator expression.\nAnonymous functions are implemented using lambda expressions; however, there may be only one expression in each body.\nConditional expressions are written as x if c else y. (This is different in operand order from the c ? x : y operator common to many other languages.)\nPython makes a distinction between lists and tuples. Lists are written as [1, 2, 3], are mutable, and cannot be used as the keys of dictionaries (since dictionary keys must be immutable in Python). Tuples, written as (1, 2, 3), are immutable and thus can be used as the keys of dictionaries, provided that all of the tuple\'s elements are immutable. The + operator can be used to concatenate two tuples, which does not directly modify their contents, but produces a new tuple containing the elements of both. For example, given the variable t initially equal to (1, 2, 3), executing t = t + (4, 5) first evaluates t + (4, 5), which yields (1, 2, 3, 4, 5); this result is then assigned back to t—thereby effectively "modifying the contents" of t while conforming to the immutable nature of tuple objects. Parentheses are optional for tuples in unambiguous contexts.\nPython features sequence unpacking where multiple expressions, each evaluating to something assignable (e.g., a variable or a writable property) are associated just as in forming tuple literal; as a whole, the results are then put on the left-hand side of the equal sign in an assignment statement. This statement expects an iterable object on the right-hand side of the equal sign to produce the same number of values as the writable expressions on the left-hand side; while iterating, the statement assigns each of the values produced on the right to the corresponding expression on the left.\nPython has a "string format" operator % that functions analogously to printf format strings in the C language—e.g. "spam=%s eggs=%d" % ("blah", 2) evaluates to "spam=blah eggs=2". In Python 2.6+ and 3+, this operator was supplemented by the format() method of the str class, e.g., "spam={0} eggs={1}".format("blah", 2). Python 3.6 added "f-strings": spam = "blah"; eggs = 2; f\'spam={spam} eggs={eggs}\'.\nStrings in Python can be concatenated by "adding" them (using the same operator as for adding integers and floats); e.g., "spam" + "eggs" returns "spameggs". If strings contain numbers, they are concatenated as strings rather than as integers, e.g. "2" + "2" returns "22".\nPython supports string literals in several ways:\nDelimited by single or double quotation marks; single and double quotation marks have equivalent functionality (unlike in Unix shells, Perl, and Perl-influenced languages). Both marks use the backslash (\\) as an escape character. String interpolation became available in Python 3.6 as "formatted string literals".\nTriple-quoted, i.e., starting and ending with three single or double quotation marks; this may span multiple lines and function like here documents in shells, Perl, and Ruby.\nRaw string varieties, denoted by prefixing the string literal with r. Escape sequences are not interpreted; hence raw strings are useful where literal backslashes are common, such as in regular expressions and Windows-style paths. (Compare "@-quoting" in C#.)\nPython has array index and array slicing expressions in lists, which are written as a[key], a[start:stop] or a[start:stop:step]. Indexes are zero-based, and negative indexes are relative to the end. Slices take elements from the start index up to, but not including, the stop index. The (optional) third slice parameter, called step or stride, allows elements to be skipped or reversed. Slice indexes may be omitted—for example, a[:] returns a copy of the entire list. Each element of a slice is a shallow copy.\nIn Python, a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly enforced, in contrast to languages such as Common Lisp, Scheme, or Ruby. This distinction leads to duplicating some functionality, for example:\n\nList comprehensions vs. for-loops\nConditional expressions vs. if blocks\nThe eval() vs. exec() built-in functions (in Python 2, exec is a statement); the former function is for expressions, while the latter is for statements\nA statement cannot be part of an expression; because of this restriction, expressions such as list and dict comprehensions (and lambda expressions) cannot contain statements. As a particular case, an assignment statement such as a = 1 cannot be part of the conditional expression of a conditional statement.\n\nTyping\nPython uses duck typing, and it has typed objects but untyped variable names. Type constraints are not checked at definition time; rather, operations on an object may fail at usage time, indicating that the object is not of an appropriate type. Despite being dynamically typed, Python is strongly typed, forbidding operations that are poorly defined (e.g., adding a number and a string) rather than quietly attempting to interpret them.\nPython allows programmers to define their own types using classes, most often for object-oriented programming. New instances of classes are constructed by calling the class, for example, SpamClass() or EggsClass()); the classes are instances of the metaclass type (which is an instance of itself), thereby allowing metaprogramming and reflection.\nBefore version 3.0, Python had two kinds of classes, both using the same syntax: old-style and new-style. Current Python versions support the semantics of only the new style.\nPython supports optional type annotations. These annotations are not enforced by the language, but may be used by external tools such as mypy to catch errors. Python includes a module typing including several type names for type annotations. Also, mypy supports a Python compiler called mypyc, which leverages type annotations for optimization.\n\nArithmetic operations\nPython includes conventional symbols for arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /), the floor-division operator //, and the modulo operator %. (With the modulo operator, a remainder can be negative, e.g., 4 % -3 == -2.) Also, Python offers the ** symbol for exponentiation, e.g. 5**3 == 125 and 9**0.5 == 3.0. Also, it offers the matrix‑multiplication operator @ . These operators work as in traditional mathematics; with the same precedence rules, the infix operators + and - can also be unary, to represent positive and negative numbers respectively.\nDivision between integers produces floating-point results. The behavior of division has changed significantly over time:\n\nThe current version of Python (i.e., since 3.0) changed the / operator to always represent floating-point division, e.g., 5/2 == 2.5.\nThe floor division // operator was introduced, meaning that 7//3 == 2, -7//3 == -3, 7.5//3 == 2.0, and -7.5//3 == -3.0. For Python 2.7, adding the from __future__ import division statement allows a module in Python 2.7 to use Python 3.x rules for division (see above).\nIn Python terms, the / operator represents true division (or simply division), while the // operator represents floor division. Before version 3.0, the / operator represents classic division.\nRounding towards negative infinity, though a different method than in most languages, adds consistency to Python. For instance, this rounding implies that the equation (a + b)//b == a//b + 1 is always true. Also, the rounding implies that the equation b*(a//b) + a%b == a is valid for both positive and negative values of a. As expected, the result of a%b lies in the half-open interval [0, b), where b is a positive integer; however, maintaining the validity of the equation requires that the result must lie in the interval (b, 0] when b is negative.\nPython provides a round function for rounding a float to the nearest integer. For tie-breaking, Python 3 uses the round to even method: round(1.5) and round(2.5) both produce 2. Python versions before 3 used the round-away-from-zero method: round(0.5) is 1.0, and round(-0.5) is −1.0.\nPython allows Boolean expressions that contain multiple equality relations to be consistent with general usage in mathematics. For example, the expression a < b < c tests whether a is less than b and b is less than c. C-derived languages interpret this expression differently: in C, the expression would first evaluate a < b, resulting in 0 or 1, and that result would then be compared with c.\nPython uses arbitrary-precision arithmetic for all integer operations. The Decimal type/class in the decimal module provides decimal floating-point numbers to a pre-defined arbitrary precision with several rounding modes. The Fraction class in the fractions module provides arbitrary precision for rational numbers.\nDue to Python\'s extensive mathematics library and the third-party library NumPy, the language is frequently used for scientific scripting in tasks such as numerical data processing and manipulation.\n\nFunction syntax\nFunctions are created in Python by using the def keyword. A function is defined similarly to how it is called, by first providing the function name and then the required parameters. Here is an example of a function that prints its inputs:\n\nTo assign a default value to a function parameter in case no actual value is provided at run time, variable-definition syntax can be used inside the function header.\n\nCode examples\n"Hello, World!" program:\n\nProgram to calculate the factorial of a non-negative integer:\n\nLibraries\nPython\'s large standard library is commonly cited as one of its greatest strengths. For Internet-facing applications, many standard formats and protocols such as MIME and HTTP are supported. The language includes modules for creating graphical user interfaces, connecting to relational databases, generating pseudorandom numbers, arithmetic with arbitrary-precision decimals, manipulating regular expressions, and unit testing.\nSome parts of the standard library are covered by specifications—for example, the Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) implementation wsgiref follows PEP 333—but most parts are specified by their code, internal documentation, and test suites. However, because most of the standard library is cross-platform Python code, only a few modules must be altered or rewritten for variant implementations.\nAs of 13 March 2025, the Python Package Index (PyPI), the official repository for third-party Python software, contains over 614,339 packages.\n\nDevelopment environments\nMost Python implementations (including CPython) include a read–eval–print loop (REPL); this permits the environment to function as a command line interpreter, with which users enter statements sequentially and receive results immediately.\nAlso, CPython is bundled with an integrated development environment (IDE) called IDLE, which is oriented toward beginners.\nOther shells, including IDLE and IPython, add additional capabilities such as improved auto-completion, session-state retention, and syntax highlighting.\nStandard desktop IDEs include PyCharm, Spyder, and Visual Studio Code; there are web browser-based IDEs, such as the following environments:\n\nJupyter Notebooks, an open-source interactive computing platform;\nPythonAnywhere, a browser-based IDE and hosting environment; and\nCanopy, a commercial IDE from Enthought that emphasizes scientific computing.\n\nImplementations\nReference implementation\nCPython is the reference implementation of Python. This implementation is written in C, meeting the C11 standard since version 3.11. Older versions use the C89 standard with several select C99 features, but third-party extensions are not limited to older C versions—e.g., they can be implemented using C11 or C++. CPython compiles Python programs into an intermediate bytecode, which is then executed by a virtual machine. CPython is distributed with a large standard library written in a combination of C and native Python.\nCPython is available for many platforms, including Windows and most modern Unix-like systems, including macOS (and Apple M1 Macs, since Python 3.9.1, using an experimental installer). Starting with Python 3.9, the Python installer intentionally fails to install on Windows 7 and 8; Windows XP was supported until Python 3.5, with unofficial support for VMS. Platform portability was one of Python\'s earliest priorities. During development of Python 1 and 2, even OS/2 and Solaris were supported; since that time, support has been dropped for many platforms.\nAll current Python versions (since 3.7) support only operating systems that feature multithreading, by now supporting not nearly as many operating systems (dropping many outdated) than in the past.\n\nLimitations of the reference implementation\nThe energy usage of Python with CPython for typically written code is much worse than C by a factor of 75.88.\nThe throughput of Python with CPython for typically written code is worse than C by a factor of 71.9.\nThe average memory usage of CPython for typically written code is worse than C by a factor of 2.4.\n\nOther implementations\nAll alternative implementations have at least slightly different semantics. For example, an alternative may include unordered dictionaries, in contrast to other current Python versions. As another example in the larger Python ecosystem, PyPy does not support the full C Python API.\nCreating an executable with Python often is done by bundling an entire Python interpreter into the executable, which causes binary sizes to be massive for small programs, yet there exist implementations that are capable of truly compiling Python. Alternative implementations include the following:\n\nPyPy is a faster, compliant interpreter of Python 2.7 and 3.10. PyPy\'s just-in-time compiler often improves speed significantly relative to CPython, but PyPy does not support some libraries written in C. PyPy offers support for the RISC-V instruction-set architecture.\nCodon is an implementation with an ahead-of-time (AOT) compiler, which compiles a statically-typed Python-like language whose "syntax and semantics are nearly identical to Python\'s, there are some notable differences" For example, Codon uses 64-bit machine integers for speed, not arbitrarily as with Python; Codon developers claim that speedups over CPython are usually on the order of ten to a hundred times. Codon compiles to machine code (via LLVM) and supports native multithreading. Codon can also compile to Python extension modules that can be imported and used from Python.\nMicroPython and CircuitPython are Python 3 variants that are optimized for microcontrollers, including the Lego Mindstorms EV3.\nPyston is a variant of the Python runtime that uses just-in-time compilation to speed up execution of Python programs.\nCinder is a performance-oriented fork of CPython 3.8 that features a number of optimizations, including bytecode inline caching, eager evaluation of coroutines, a method-at-a-time JIT, and an experimental bytecode compiler.\nThe Snek embedded computing language "is Python-inspired, but it is not Python. It is possible to write Snek programs that run under a full Python system, but most Python programs will not run under Snek." Snek is compatible with 8-bit AVR microcontrollers such as ATmega 328P-based Arduino, as well as larger microcontrollers that are compatible with MicroPython. Snek is an imperative language that (unlike Python) omits object-oriented programming. Snek supports only one numeric data type, which features 32-bit single precision (resembling JavaScript numbers, though smaller).\n\nUnsupported implementations\nStackless Python is a significant fork of CPython that implements microthreads. This implementation uses the call stack differently, thus allowing massively concurrent programs. PyPy also offers a stackless version.\nJust-in-time Python compilers have been developed, but are now unsupported:\n\nGoogle began a project named Unladen Swallow in 2009: this project aimed to speed up the Python interpreter five-fold by using LLVM, and improve multithreading capability for scaling to thousands of cores, while typical implementations are limited by the global interpreter lock.\nPsyco is a discontinued just-in-time specializing compiler, which integrates with CPython and transforms bytecode to machine code at runtime. The emitted code is specialized for certain data types and is faster than standard Python code. Psyco does not support Python 2.7 or later.\nPyS60 was a Python 2 interpreter for Series 60 mobile phones, which was released by Nokia in 2005. The interpreter implemented many modules from Python\'s standard library, as well as additional modules for integration with the Symbian operating system. The Nokia N900 also supports Python through the GTK widget library, allowing programs to be written and run on the target device.\n\nTranspilers to other languages\nThere are several compilers/transpilers to high-level object languages; the source language is unrestricted Python, a subset of Python, or a language similar to Python:\n\nBrython and Transcrypt compile Python to JavaScript.\nCython compiles a superset of Python to C. The resulting code can be used with Python via direct C-level API calls into the Python interpreter.\nPyJL compiles/transpiles a subset of Python to "human-readable, maintainable, and high-performance Julia source code". Despite the developers\' performance claims, this is not possible for arbitrary Python code; that is, compiling to a faster language or machine code is known to be impossible in the general case. The semantics of Python might potentially be changed, but in many cases speedup is possible with few or no changes in the Python code. The faster Julia source code can then be used from Python or compiled to machine code.\nNuitka compiles Python into C. This compiler works with Python 3.4 to 3.13 (and 2.6 and 2.7) for Python\'s main supported platforms (and Windows 7 or even Windows XP) and for Android. The compiler developers claim full support for Python 3.10, partial support for Python 3.11 and 3.12, and experimental support for Python 3.13. Nuitka supports macOS including Apple Silicon-based versions. The compiler is free of cost, though it has commercial add-ons (e.g., for hiding source code).\nNumba is a JIT compiler that is used from Python; the compiler translates a subset of Python and NumPy code into fast machine code. This tool is enabled by adding a decorator to the relevant Python code.\nPythran compiles a subset of Python 3 to C++ (C++11).\nRPython can be compiled to C, and it is used to build the PyPy interpreter for Python.\nThe Python → 11l → C++ transpiler compiles a subset of Python 3 to C++ (C++17).\nThere are also specialized compilers:\n\nMyHDL is a Python-based hardware description language (HDL) that converts MyHDL code to Verilog or VHDL code.\nSome older projects existed, as well as compilers not designed for use with Python 3.x and related syntax:\n\nGoogle\'s Grumpy transpiles Python 2 to Go. The latest release was in 2017.\nIronPython allows running Python 2.7 programs with the .NET Common Language Runtime. An alpha version (released in 2021), is available for "Python 3.4, although features and behaviors from later versions may be included."\nJython compiles Python 2.7 to Java bytecode, allowing the use of Java libraries from a Python program.\nPyrex (last released in 2010) and Shed Skin (last released in 2013) compile to C and C++ respectively.\n\nPerformance\nA performance comparison among various Python implementations, using a non-numerical (combinatorial) workload, was presented at EuroSciPy \'13. In addition, Python\'s performance relative to other programming languages is benchmarked by The Computer Language Benchmarks Game.\nThere are several approaches to optimizing Python performance, despite the inherent slowness of an interpreted language. These approaches include the following strategies or tools:\n\nJust-in-time compilation: Dynamically compiling parts of a Python program during the execution of the program. This technique is used in libraries such as Numba and PyPy.\nStatic compilation: Sometimes, Python code can be compiled into machine code sometime before execution. An example of this approach is Cython, which compiles Python into C.\nConcurrency and parallelism: Multiple tasks can be run simultaneously. Python contains modules such as `multiprocessing` to support this form of parallelism. Moreover, this approach helps to overcome limitations of the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) in CPU tasks.\nEfficient data structures: Performance can also be improved by using data types such as Set for membership tests, or deque from collections for queue operations.\nPerformance gains can be observed by utilizing libraries such as NumPy. Most high performance Python libraries use C or Fortran under the hood instead of the Python interpreter.\n\nLanguage development\nPython\'s development is conducted mostly through the Python Enhancement Proposal (PEP) process; this process is the primary mechanism for proposing major new features, collecting community input on issues, and documenting Python design decisions. Python coding style is covered in PEP 8. Outstanding PEPs are reviewed and commented on by the Python community and the steering council.\nEnhancement of the language corresponds with development of the CPython reference implementation. The mailing list python-dev is the primary forum for the language\'s development. Specific issues were originally discussed in the Roundup bug tracker hosted by the foundation. In 2022, all issues and discussions were migrated to GitHub. Development originally took place on a self-hosted source-code repository running Mercurial, until Python moved to GitHub in January 2017.\nCPython\'s public releases have three types, distinguished by which part of the version number is incremented:\n\nBackward-incompatible versions, where code is expected to break and must be manually ported. The first part of the version number is incremented. These releases happen infrequently—version 3.0 was released 8 years after 2.0. According to Guido van Rossum, a version 4.0 will probably never exist.\nMajor or "feature" releases are largely compatible with the previous version but introduce new features. The second part of the version number is incremented. Starting with Python 3.9, these releases are expected to occur annually. Each major version is supported by bug fixes for several years after its release.\nBug fix releases, which introduce no new features, occur approximately every three months; these releases are made when a sufficient number of bugs have been fixed upstream since the last release. Security vulnerabilities are also patched in these releases. The third and final part of the version number is incremented.\nMany alpha, beta, and release-candidates are also released as previews and for testing before final releases. Although there is a rough schedule for releases, they are often delayed if the code is not ready yet. Python\'s development team monitors the state of the code by running a large unit test suite during development.\nThe major academic conference on Python is PyCon. Also, there are special Python mentoring programs, such as PyLadies.\n\nNaming\nPython\'s name is inspired by the British comedy group Monty Python, whom Python creator Guido van Rossum enjoyed while developing the language. Monty Python references appear frequently in Python code and culture; for example, the metasyntactic variables often used in Python literature are spam and eggs, rather than the traditional foo and bar. Also, the official Python documentation contains various references to Monty Python routines. Python users are sometimes referred to as "Pythonistas".\n\nLanguages influenced by Python\nCobra has an Acknowledgements document that lists Python first among influencing languages.\nECMAScript and JavaScript borrowed iterators and generators from Python.\nGo is designed for "speed of working in a dynamic language like Python".\nJulia was designed to be "as usable for general programming as Python".\nMojo is almost a superset of Python.\nGDScript is strongly influenced by Python.\n Groovy, Boo, CoffeeScript, F#, Nim, Ruby, Swift, and V have been influenced, as well.\n\nSee also\nList of Python programming books\npip (package manager) (see also uv)\nPydoc\nNumPy\nSciPy\nJupyter\nPyTorch\nCython\nCPython\nMojo\nPygame\nPyQt\nPyGTK\nPyPy\nPyCon\nGoogle Colab – zero setup online IDE that runs Python\nRen\'Py\n\nNotes\nReferences\nSources\n"Python for Artificial Intelligence". Python Wiki. 19 July 2012. Archived from the original on 1 November 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2012.\nPaine, Jocelyn, ed. (August 2005). "AI in Python". AI Expert Newsletter. Amzi!. Archived from the original on 26 March 2012. Retrieved 11 February 2012.\n"PyAIML 0.8.5: Python Package Index". Pypi.python.org. Retrieved 17 July 2013.\nRussell, Stuart J. & Norvig, Peter (2009). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-604259-4.\n\nFurther reading\nDowney, Allen (July 2024). Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist (3rd ed.). O\'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1-0981-5543-8.\nLutz, Mark (2013). Learning Python (5th ed.). O\'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-15806-4.\nSummerfield, Mark (2009). Programming in Python 3 (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley Professional. ISBN 978-0-321-68056-3.\nRamalho, Luciano (May 2022). Fluent Python. O\'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1-4920-5632-4.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nPython documentation\nThe Python Tutorial',
'cached': True}When fetching a web page or a pdf the fetch method will return a tuple metadata, content:
from knwler.api import fetch_url
import json
metadata, content = await fetch_url("https://www.wikipedia.org/")
print(json.dumps(metadata, indent=2)){
"text": "Wikipedia\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWikipedia\n**The Free Encyclopedia**\n===================================\n\nWikipedia\n**25 years of the free encyclopedia**\n===============================================\n\n[**English**\n7,141,000+ articles](//en.wikipedia.org/ \"English \u2014 Wikipedia \u2014 The Free Encyclopedia\")\n\n[**\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e**\n1,491,000+ \u8a18\u4e8b](//ja.wikipedia.org/ \"Nihongo \u2014 \u30a6\u30a3\u30ad\u30da\u30c7\u30a3\u30a2 \u2014 \u30d5\u30ea\u30fc\u767e\u79d1\u4e8b\u5178\")\n\n[**Deutsch**\n3.099.000+ Artikel](//de.wikipedia.org/ \"Deutsch \u2014 Wikipedia \u2014 Die freie Enzyklop\u00e4die\")\n\n[**\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439**\n2\u00a0087\u00a0000+ \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0439](//ru.wikipedia.org/ \"Russkiy \u2014 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f \u2014 \u0421\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u044d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f\")\n\n[**Fran\u00e7ais**\n2\u202f740\u202f000+ articles](//fr.wikipedia.org/ \"Fran\u00e7ais \u2014 Wikip\u00e9dia \u2014 L\u2019encyclop\u00e9die libre\")\n\n[**Espa\u00f1ol**\n2.095.000+ art\u00edculos](//es.wikipedia.org/ \"Espa\u00f1ol \u2014 Wikipedia \u2014 La enciclopedia libre\")\n\n[**Italiano**\n1.957.000+ voci](//it.wikipedia.org/ \"Italiano \u2014 Wikipedia \u2014 L'enciclopedia libera\")\n\n[**\u4e2d\u6587**\n1,524,000+ \u6761\u76ee / \u689d\u76ee](//zh.wikipedia.org/ \"Zh\u014dngw\u00e9n \u2014 \u7ef4\u57fa\u767e\u79d1 / \u7dad\u57fa\u767e\u79d1 \u2014 \u81ea\u7531\u7684\u767e\u79d1\u5168\u4e66 / \u81ea\u7531\u7684\u767e\u79d1\u5168\u66f8\")\n\n[**Portugu\u00eas**\n1.165.000+ artigos](//pt.wikipedia.org/ \"Portugu\u00eas \u2014 Wikip\u00e9dia \u2014 A Enciclop\u00e9dia Livre\")\n\n[**Polski**\n1\u00a0685\u00a0000+ hase\u0142](//pl.wikipedia.org/ \"Polski \u2014 Wikipedia \u2014 Wolna encyklopedia\")\n\nUnlock birthday surprises on Wikipedia\n\nLearn how to turn on Birthday mode so you and Baby Globe can explore Wikipedia together!\n\nUnlock birthday surprises on Wikipedia\n--------------------------------------\n\nLearn how to turn on Birthday mode so you and Baby Globe can explore Wikipedia together!\n\nLearn more\n\nSearch Wikipedia\n\n\nAfrikaans\nShqip\n\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\nAsturianu\nAz\u0259rbaycanca\n\u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n\u95a9\u5357\u8a9e / B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\n\u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n\u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\nCatal\u00e0\n\u010ce\u0161tina\nCymraeg\nDansk\nDeutsch\nEesti\n\u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\nEnglish\nEspa\u00f1ol\nEsperanto\nEuskara\n\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\nFran\u00e7ais\nGalego\n\ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n\u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n\u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\nHrvatski\nBahasa Indonesia\nItaliano\n\u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n\u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\nLadin\nLatina\nLatvie\u0161u\nLietuvi\u0173\nMagyar\n\u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\nMalagasy\n\u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n\u0645\u0635\u0631\u0649\nBahasa Melayu\nBahaso Minangkabau\n\u1019\u103c\u1014\u103a\u1019\u102c\u1018\u102c\u101e\u102c\nNederlands\n\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\nNorsk (bokm\u00e5l)\nNorsk (nynorsk)\n\u041d\u043e\u0445\u0447\u0438\u0439\u043d\nO\u02bbzbekcha / \u040e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430\nPolski\nPortugu\u00eas\n\u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430 / Qazaq\u015fa / \u0642\u0627\u0632\u0627\u0642\u0634\u0627\nRom\u00e2n\u0103\nSimple English\nSinugboanong Binisaya\nSloven\u010dina\nSloven\u0161\u010dina\n\u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 / Srpski\nSrpskohrvatski / \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\nSuomi\nSvenska\nKiswahili\n\u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n\u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0430 / Tatar\u00e7a\n\u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41\n\u0e20\u0e32\u0e29\u0e32\u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n\u0422\u043e\u04b7\u0438\u043a\u04e3\n\u062a\u06c6\u0631\u06a9\u062c\u0647\nT\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n\u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n\u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648\nTi\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\nWinaray\n\u4e2d\u6587\n\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n\u7cb5\u8a9e\n\n*Search*\n\nRead Wikipedia in your language\n\n1,000,000+\n\narticles\n--------------------\n\n* [\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629](//ar.wikipedia.org/ \"Al-\u02bfArab\u012byah\")\n* [Deutsch](//de.wikipedia.org/)\n* [English](//en.wikipedia.org/ \"English\")\n* [Espa\u00f1ol](//es.wikipedia.org/ \"Espa\u00f1ol\")\n* [\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc](//fa.wikipedia.org/ \"F\u0101rsi\")\n* [Fran\u00e7ais](//fr.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Italiano](//it.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0645\u0635\u0631\u0649](//arz.wikipedia.org/ \"Ma\u1e63r\u012b\")\n* [Nederlands](//nl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e](//ja.wikipedia.org/ \"Nihongo\")\n* [Polski](//pl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Portugu\u00eas](//pt.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sinugboanong Binisaya](//ceb.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Svenska](//sv.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430](//uk.wikipedia.org/ \"Ukrayins\u2019ka\")\n* [Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t](//vi.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Winaray](//war.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u4e2d\u6587](//zh.wikipedia.org/ \"Zh\u014dngw\u00e9n\")\n* [\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439](//ru.wikipedia.org/ \"Russkiy\")\n\n100,000+\n\narticles\n------------------\n\n* [Afrikaans](//af.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Shqip](//sq.wikipedia.org/ \"Anglisht\")\n* [Asturianu](//ast.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Az\u0259rbaycanca](//az.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438](//bg.wikipedia.org/ \"B\u01celgarski\")\n* [\u95a9\u5357\u8a9e / B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa](//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/ \"B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\")\n* [\u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be](//bn.wikipedia.org/ \"Bangla\")\n* [\u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f](//be.wikipedia.org/ \"Belaruskaya\")\n* [Catal\u00e0](//ca.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u010ce\u0161tina](//cs.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Cymraeg](//cy.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Dansk](//da.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Eesti](//et.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac](//el.wikipedia.org/ \"Ell\u012bnik\u00e1\")\n* [Esperanto](//eo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Euskara](//eu.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Galego](//gl.wikipedia.org/ \"Galego\")\n* [\ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4](//ko.wikipedia.org/ \"Hangugeo\")\n* [\u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576](//hy.wikipedia.org/ \"Hayeren\")\n* [\u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940](//hi.wikipedia.org/ \"Hind\u012b\")\n* [Hrvatski](//hr.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Bahasa Indonesia](//id.wikipedia.org/ \"Bahasa Inggris\")\n* [\u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea](//he.wikipedia.org/ \"Ivrit\")\n* [\u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8](//ka.wikipedia.org/ \"Kartuli\")\n* [Ladin](//lld.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Latina](//la.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Latvie\u0161u](//lv.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Lietuvi\u0173](//lt.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Magyar](//hu.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438](//mk.wikipedia.org/ \"Makedonski\")\n* [Malagasy](//mg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940](//mr.wikipedia.org/ \"Marathi\")\n* [Bahasa Melayu](//ms.wikipedia.org/ \"Bahasa Melayu\")\n* [Bahaso Minangkabau](//min.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u1019\u103c\u1014\u103a\u1019\u102c\u1018\u102c\u101e\u102c](//my.wikipedia.org/ \"Myanmarsar\")\n* Norsk\n + [bokm\u00e5l](//no.wikipedia.org/)\n + [nynorsk](//nn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041d\u043e\u0445\u0447\u0438\u0439\u043d](//ce.wikipedia.org/ \"Nox\u00e7iyn\")\n* [O\u02bbzbekcha / \u040e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430](//uz.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430 / Qazaq\u015fa / \u0642\u0627\u0632\u0627\u0642\u0634\u0627](//kk.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Rom\u00e2n\u0103](//ro.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Simple English](//simple.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sloven\u010dina](//sk.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sloven\u0161\u010dina](//sl.wikipedia.org/ \"Sloven\u0161\u010dina\")\n* [\u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 / Srpski](//sr.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Srpskohrvatski / \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438](//sh.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Suomi](//fi.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kiswahili](//sw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd](//ta.wikipedia.org/ \"Tami\u1e3b\")\n* [\u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0430 / Tatar\u00e7a](//tt.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41](//te.wikipedia.org/ \"Telugu\")\n* [\u0e20\u0e32\u0e29\u0e32\u0e44\u0e17\u0e22](//th.wikipedia.org/ \"Phasa Thai\")\n* [\u0422\u043e\u04b7\u0438\u043a\u04e3](//tg.wikipedia.org/ \"Tojik\u012b\")\n* [\u062a\u06c6\u0631\u06a9\u062c\u0647](//azb.wikipedia.org/ \"T\u00fcrkce\")\n* [T\u00fcrk\u00e7e](//tr.wikipedia.org/ \"T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\")\n* [\u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648](//ur.wikipedia.org/ \"Urdu\")\n* [\u7cb5\u8a9e](//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/)\n\n10,000+\n\narticles\n-----------------\n\n* [Bahsa Ac\u00e8h](//ace.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Alemannisch](//als.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u12a0\u121b\u122d\u129b](//am.wikipedia.org/ \"\u0100mari\u00f1\u00f1\u0101\")\n* [Aragon\u00e9s](//an.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0531\u0580\u0565\u0582\u0574\u057f\u0561\u0570\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0567\u0576](//hyw.wikipedia.org/ \"Arevmdahayeren\")\n* [Bahasa Hulontalo](//gor.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Basa Bali](//ban.wikipedia.org/ \"Basa Bali\")\n* [Bahasa Banjar](//bjn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Basa Banyumasan](//map-bms.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0411\u0430\u0448\u04a1\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0441\u0430](//ba.wikipedia.org/ \"Ba\u015fqortsa\")\n* [\u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)](//be-tarask.wikipedia.org/ \"Bielaruskaja (tara\u0161kievica)\")\n* [Bikol Central](//bcl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u09ac\u09bf\u09b7\u09cd\u09a3\u09c1\u09aa\u09cd\u09b0\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be \u09ae\u09a3\u09bf\u09aa\u09c1\u09b0\u09c0](//bpy.wikipedia.org/ \"Bishnupriya Manipuri\")\n* [Boarisch](//bar.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Bosanski](//bs.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Brezhoneg](//br.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0427\u04d1\u0432\u0430\u0448\u043b\u0430](//cv.wikipedia.org/ \"\u010c\u0103va\u0161la\")\n* [Dagbanli](//dag.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0627\u0644\u062f\u0627\u0631\u062c\u0629](//ary.wikipedia.org/ \"Darija\")\n* [Din\u00e9 Bizaad](//nv.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Emigli\u00e0n\u2013Rumagn\u00f2l](//eml.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Fiji Hindi](//hif.wikipedia.org/)\n* [F\u00f8royskt](//fo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Frysk](//fy.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Fulfulde](//ff.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Gaeilge](//ga.wikipedia.org/)\n* [G\u00e0idhlig](//gd.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u06af\u06cc\u0644\u06a9\u06cc](//glk.wikipedia.org/ \"Gil\u0259ki\")\n* [\u0a97\u0ac1\u0a9c\u0ab0\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0](//gu.wikipedia.org/ \"Gujarati\")\n* [Hak-k\u00e2-ng\u00ee / \u5ba2\u5bb6\u8a9e](//hak.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Hausa](//ha.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Hornjoserbsce](//hsb.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Ido](//io.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Igbo](//ig.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Ilokano](//ilo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Interlingua](//ia.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Interlingue](//ie.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0418\u0440\u043e\u043d](//os.wikipedia.org/ \"Iron\")\n* [\u00cdslenska](//is.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Jawa](//jv.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0c95\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0ca1](//kn.wikipedia.org/ \"Kannada\")\n* [Kapampangan](//pam.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u1797\u17b6\u179f\u17b6\u1781\u17d2\u1798\u17c2\u179a](//km.wikipedia.org/ \"Ph\u00e9asa Khm\u00e9r\")\n* [Kotava](//avk.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Krey\u00f2l Ayisyen](//ht.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kurd\u00ee / \u0643\u0648\u0631\u062f\u06cc](//ku.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u06a9\u0648\u0631\u062f\u06cc\u06cc \u0646\u0627\u0648\u06d5\u0646\u062f\u06cc](//ckb.wikipedia.org/ \"Kurd\u00eey Nawend\u00ee\")\n* [\u041a\u044b\u0440\u0433\u044b\u0437\u0447\u0430](//ky.wikipedia.org/ \"Kyrgyz\u010da\")\n* [\u041a\u044b\u0440\u044b\u043a \u043c\u0430\u0440\u044b](//mrj.wikipedia.org/ \"Kyryk Mary\")\n* [L\u00ebtzebuergesch](//lb.wikipedia.org/)\n* [L\u00ecgure](//lij.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Limburgs](//li.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Lombard](//lmo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u092e\u0948\u0925\u093f\u0932\u0940](//mai.wikipedia.org/ \"Maithil\u012b\")\n* [\u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02](//ml.wikipedia.org/ \"Malayalam\")\n* [\u10db\u10d0\u10e0\u10d2\u10d0\u10da\u10e3\u10e0\u10d8](//xmf.wikipedia.org/ \"Margaluri\")\n* [\u0645\u0627\u0632\u0650\u0631\u0648\u0646\u06cc](//mzn.wikipedia.org/ \"M\u00e4zeruni\")\n* [M\u00ecng-d\u0115\u0324ng-ng\u1e73\u0304 / \u95a9\u6771\u8a9e](//cdo.wikipedia.org/ \"Ming-deng-ngu\")\n* [\u041c\u043e\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b](//mn.wikipedia.org/ \"Mongol\")\n* [Napulitano](//nap.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e](//new.wikipedia.org/ \"Nepal Bhasa\")\n* [Nordfriisk](//frr.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Occitan](//oc.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041e\u043b\u044b\u043a \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439](//mhr.wikipedia.org/ \"Olyk Marij\")\n* [\u0b13\u0b21\u0b3f\u0b3c\u0b06](//or.wikipedia.org/ \"O\u1e5bi\u0101\")\n* [\u0985\u09b8\u09ae\u09c0\u09af\u09be\u09bc](//as.wikipedia.org/ \"\u00d4x\u00f4miya\")\n* [\u0a2a\u0a70\u0a1c\u0a3e\u0a2c\u0a40](//pa.wikipedia.org/ \"Pa\u00f1j\u0101b\u012b (Gurmukh\u012b)\")\n* [\u067e\u0646\u062c\u0627\u0628\u06cc (\u0634\u0627\u06c1 \u0645\u06a9\u06be\u06cc)](//pnb.wikipedia.org/ \"Pa\u00f1j\u0101b\u012b (Sh\u0101hmukh\u012b)\")\n* [\u067e\u069a\u062a\u0648](//ps.wikipedia.org/ \"Pa\u0282to\")\n* [Piemont\u00e8is](//pms.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Plattd\u00fc\u00fctsch](//nds.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Qaraqalpaqsha](//kaa.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Q\u0131r\u0131mtatarca](//crh.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Runa Simi](//qu.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438\u043d\u044c\u0441\u043a\u044b\u0439](//rue.wikipedia.org/ \"Rusin\u2019skyj\")\n* [\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u092e\u094d](//sa.wikipedia.org/ \"Sa\u1e43sk\u1e5btam\")\n* [\u1c65\u1c5f\u1c71\u1c5b\u1c5f\u1c72\u1c64](//sat.wikipedia.org/ \"Santali\")\n* [\u0633\u0631\u0627\u0626\u06cc\u06a9\u06cc](//skr.wikipedia.org/ \"Saraiki\")\n* [\u0421\u0430\u0445\u0430 \u0422\u044b\u043b\u0430](//sah.wikipedia.org/ \"Saxa Tyla\")\n* [Scots](//sco.wikipedia.org/)\n* [ChiShona](//sn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sicilianu](//scn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0dc3\u0dd2\u0d82\u0dc4\u0dbd](//si.wikipedia.org/ \"Si\u1e43hala\")\n* [\u0633\u0646\u068c\u064a](//sd.wikipedia.org/ \"Sindh\u012b\")\n* [\u015al\u016fnski](//szl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Soomaaliga](//so.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Basa Sunda](//su.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tacl\u1e25it](//shi.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tagalog](//tl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u107d\u1083\u1087\u101e\u1083\u1087\u1010\u1086\u1038](//shn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u2d5c\u2d30\u2d4e\u2d30\u2d63\u2d49\u2d56\u2d5c \u2d5c\u2d30\u2d4f\u2d30\u2d61\u2d30\u2d62\u2d5c](//zgh.wikipedia.org/ \"Tamazight tanawayt\")\n* [tol\u0131\u015fi](//tly.wikipedia.org/)\n* [chiTumbuka](//tum.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Basa Ugi](//bug.wikipedia.org/)\n* [V\u00e8neto](//vec.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Volap\u00fck](//vo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Walon](//wa.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u6587\u8a00](//zh-classical.wikipedia.org/ \"W\u00e9ny\u00e1n\")\n* [\u5434\u8bed](//wuu.wikipedia.org/ \"W\u00fay\u01d4\")\n* [\u05d9\u05d9\u05b4\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9](//yi.wikipedia.org/ \"Yidi\u0161\")\n* [Yor\u00f9b\u00e1](//yo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Zazaki](//diq.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u017demait\u0117\u0161ka](//bat-smg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [isiZulu](//zu.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0940](//ne.wikipedia.org/ \"Nep\u0101l\u012b\")\n* [\uabc3\uabe4\uabc7\uabe9 \uabc2\uabe3\uabdf](//mni.wikipedia.org/)\n\n1,000+\n\narticles\n----------------\n\n* [Dzhudezmo / \u05dc\u05d0\u05d3\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5](//lad.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0410\u0434\u044b\u0433\u044d\u0431\u0437\u044d](//kbd.wikipedia.org/ \"Adighabze\")\n* [\u00c6nglisc](//ang.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Anar\u00e2\u0161kiel\u00e2](//smn.wikipedia.org/ \"Anar\u00e2\u0161kiel\u00e2\")\n* [\u0905\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915\u093e](//anp.wikipedia.org/ \"Angika\")\n* [\u0410\u0525\u0441\u0448\u04d9\u0430](//ab.wikipedia.org/ \"A\u1e57sshwa\")\n* [arm\u00e3neashti](//roa-rup.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Arpitan](//frp.wikipedia.org/)\n* [atikamekw](//atj.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0710\u072c\u0718\u072a\u071d\u0710](//arc.wikipedia.org/ \"\u0100t\u00fbr\u0101y\u00e2\")\n* [Ava\u00f1e\u2019\u1ebd](//gn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0410\u0432\u0430\u0440](//av.wikipedia.org/ \"Avar\")\n* [Aymar](//ay.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Batak Toba](//bbc.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Betawi](//bew.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u092d\u094b\u091c\u092a\u0941\u0930\u0940](//bh.wikipedia.org/ \"Bh\u014djapur\u012b\")\n* [Bislama](//bi.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0f56\u0f7c\u0f51\u0f0b\u0f61\u0f72\u0f42](//bo.wikipedia.org/ \"Bod Skad\")\n* [\u0411\u0443\u0440\u044f\u0430\u0434](//bxr.wikipedia.org/ \"Buryad\")\n* [Chavacano de Zamboanga](//cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Chichewa](//ny.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Corsu](//co.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Vahcuengh / \u8a71\u50ee](//za.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Dagaare](//dga.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Davvis\u00e1megiella](//se.wikipedia.org/ \"Davvis\u00e1megiella\")\n* [Deitsch](//pdc.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u078b\u07a8\u0788\u07ac\u0780\u07a8\u0784\u07a6\u0790\u07b0](//dv.wikipedia.org/ \"Divehi\")\n* [Dolnoserbski](//dsb.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u042d\u0440\u0437\u044f\u043d\u044c](//myv.wikipedia.org/ \"Erzjanj\")\n* [Estreme\u00f1u](//ext.wikipedia.org/)\n* [E\u028begbe](//ee.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Farefare](//gur.wikipedia.org/)\n* [F\u0254\u0300ngb\u00e8](//fon.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Furlan](//fur.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Gaelg](//gv.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Gagauz](//gag.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0413\u04c0\u0430\u043b\u0433\u04c0\u0430\u0439](//inh.wikipedia.org/ \"Ghalghai\")\n* [Ghanaian Pidgin](//gpe.wikipedia.org/)\n* [G\u0129k\u0169y\u0169](//ki.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u8d63\u8bed / \u8d1b\u8a9e](//gan.wikipedia.org/ \"Gon ua\")\n* [Gungbe](//guw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\ud800\udf32\ud800\udf3f\ud800\udf44\ud800\udf39\ud800\udf43\ud800\udf3a](//got.wikipedia.org/ \"Gutisk\")\n* [\u0425\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0433](//xal.wikipedia.org/ \"Hal\u02b9mg\")\n* [\u02bb\u014clelo Hawai\u02bbi](//haw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Ikinyarwanda](//rw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Jaku Iban](//iba.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kab\u0269y\u025b](//kbp.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kadazandusun](//dtp.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Yerwa Kanuri](//knc.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kasz\u00ebbsczi](//csb.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kernewek](//kw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041a\u043e\u043c\u0438](//kv.wikipedia.org/ \"Komi\")\n* [\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438](//koi.wikipedia.org/ \"Perem Komi\")\n* [Kongo](//kg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0915\u094b\u0902\u0915\u0923\u0940 / Konknni](//gom.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0643\u0672\u0634\u064f\u0631](//ks.wikipedia.org/ \"Koshur\")\n* [Kriy\u00f2l Gwiyannen](//gcr.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kumoring](//kge.wikipedia.org/)\n* [K\u028bsaal](//kus.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0e9e\u0eb2\u0eaa\u0eb2\u0ea5\u0eb2\u0ea7](//lo.wikipedia.org/ \"Phaasaa Laao\")\n* [\u041b\u0430\u043a\u043a\u0443](//lbe.wikipedia.org/ \"Lakku\")\n* [Latga\u013cu](//ltg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041b\u0435\u0437\u0433\u0438](//lez.wikipedia.org/ \"Lezgi\")\n* [Li Niha](//nia.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Ling\u00e1la](//ln.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Lingua Franca Nova](//lfn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [livvinkarjala](//olo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [lojban](//jbo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Luganda](//lg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Madhur\u00e2](//mad.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Malti](//mt.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Mandailing](//btm.wikipedia.org/)\n* [M\u0101ori](//mi.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Mfantse](//fat.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Mirand\u00e9s](//mwl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041c\u043e\u043a\u0448\u0435\u043d\u044c](//mdf.wikipedia.org/ \"Mok\u0161enj\")\n* [\u1018\u102c\u101e\u102c \u1019\u1014\u103a](//mnw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Moore](//mos.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u07d2\u07de\u07cf](//nqo.wikipedia.org/ \"N'Ko\")\n* [Na Vosa Vaka-Viti](//fj.wikipedia.org/)\n* [N\u0101huatlaht\u014dlli](//nah.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Naij\u00e1](//pcm.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Nedersaksisch](//nds-nl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Nouormand / Normaund](//nrm.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Novial](//nov.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Afaan Oromoo](//om.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u1015\u1021\u102d\u102f\u101d\u103a\u108f\u1018\u102c\u108f\u101e\u102c\u108f](//blk.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Pangasin\u00e1n](//pag.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Pangcah](//ami.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Papiamentu](//pap.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Patois](//jam.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Pf\u00e4lzisch](//pfl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Picard](//pcd.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041a\u044a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0439\u2013\u043c\u0430\u043b\u043a\u044a\u0430\u0440](//krc.wikipedia.org/ \"Qara\u00e7ay\u2013Malqar\")\n* [Ripoarisch](//ksh.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Rumantsch](//rm.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0420\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0438](//rsk.wikipedia.org/ \"Ruski\")\n* [Sakizaya](//szy.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Gagana S\u0101moa](//sm.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sardu](//sc.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Seediq](//trv.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Seeltersk](//stq.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sesotho](//st.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sesotho sa Leboa](//nso.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Setswana](//tn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\ua80d\ua824\ua81f\ua810\ua824](//syl.wikipedia.org/ \"Sil\u00f4\u1e6di\")\n* [\u0421\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0463\u0301\u043d\u044c\u0441\u043a\u044a / \u2c14\u2c0e\u2c11\u2c02\u2c21\u2c10\u2c20\u2c14\u2c0d\u2c1f](//cu.wikipedia.org/ \"Slov\u011bn\u012dsk\u016d\")\n* [Sranantongo](//srn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [SiSwati](//ss.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Reo tahiti](//ty.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Taqbaylit](//kab.wikipedia.org/ \"Taqbaylit\")\n* [Tarand\u00edne](//roa-tara.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tayal](//tay.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tetun](//tet.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tok Pisin](//tpi.wikipedia.org/)\n* [toki pona](//tok.wikipedia.org/ \"toki pona\")\n* [faka Tonga](//to.wikipedia.org/)\n* [T\u00fcrkmen\u00e7e](//tk.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Twi](//tw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tyap](//kcg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0422\u044b\u0432\u0430 \u0434\u044b\u043b](//tyv.wikipedia.org/ \"Tyva dyl\")\n* [\u0423\u0434\u043c\u0443\u0440\u0442](//udm.wikipedia.org/ \"Udmurt\")\n* [\u0626\u06c7\u064a\u063a\u06c7\u0631\u0686\u0647](//ug.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Veps\u00e4n](//vep.wikipedia.org/)\n* [v\u00f5ro](//fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/)\n* [West-Vlams](//vls.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Wolof](//wo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [isiXhosa](//xh.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Ze\u00eauws](//zea.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0430\u043b\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0442\u0438\u043b](//alt.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0905\u0935\u0927\u0940](//awa.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0921\u094b\u091f\u0947\u0932\u0940](//dty.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0ca4\u0cc1\u0cb3\u0cc1](//tcy.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u101b\u1001\u102d\u102f\u1004\u103a](//rki.wikipedia.org/)\n\n100+\n\narticles\n--------------\n\n* [Bajau Sama](//bdr.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Bamanankan](//bm.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Chamoru](//ch.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0f62\u0fab\u0f7c\u0f44\u0f0b\u0f41](//dz.wikipedia.org/ \"Rdzong-Kha\")\n* [Igala](//igl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u1403\u14c4\u1483\u144e\u1450\u1466 / Inuktitut](//iu.wikipedia.org/)\n* [I\u00f1upiak](//ik.wikipedia.org/)\n* [isiNdebele seSewula](//nr.wikipedia.org/ \"isiNdebele seSewula\")\n* [Jju](//kaj.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Nawat](//ppl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Nupe](//nup.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Obolo](//ann.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u092a\u093e\u0932\u093f](//pi.wikipedia.org/ \"P\u0101\u1e37i\")\n* [pinayuanan](//pwn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u03a0\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03ac](//pnt.wikipedia.org/ \"Pontiak\u00e1\")\n* [Romani \u010dhib](//rmy.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Ikirundi](//rn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [S\u00e4ng\u00f6](//sg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u1956\u196d\u1970\u1956\u196c\u1973\u1951\u1968\u1952\u1970](//tdd.wikipedia.org/ \"Tai ta\u026f xo\u014b\")\n* [\u1275\u130d\u122d\u129b](//ti.wikipedia.org/ \"T\u0259g\u0259r\u0259\u00f1a\")\n* [Thu\u0254\u014bj\u00e4\u014b](//din.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u13e3\u13b3\u13a9](//chr.wikipedia.org/ \"Tsalagi\")\n* [Ts\u0117hesen\u0117stsestotse](//chy.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Xitsonga](//ts.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tshiven\u1e13a](//ve.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Wayuunaiki](//guc.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0430\u0434\u044b\u0433\u0430\u0431\u0437\u044d](//ady.wikipedia.org/)\n\n[Other languages](https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/List_of_Wikipedias)\n\n\n\n---\n\n\n\nWikipedia is hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation, a non-profit organization that also hosts a range of other projects.\n\n[You can support our work with a donation.](https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_medium=portal&wmf_campaign=portalFooter&wmf_source=portalFooter)\n\n**[Download Wikipedia for Android or iOS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wikipedia_mobile_applications)**\n\nSave your favorite articles to read offline, sync your reading lists across devices and customize your reading experience with the official Wikipedia app.\n\n* [Google Play Store](https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=org.wikipedia&referrer=utm_source%3Dportal%26utm_medium%3Dbutton%26anid%3Dadmob)\n* [Apple App Store](https://itunes.apple.com/app/apple-store/id324715238?pt=208305&ct=portal&mt=8)\n\nBirthday mode\n\n[Commons\nFree media collection](//commons.wikimedia.org/)\n\n[Wikivoyage\nFree travel guide](//www.wikivoyage.org/)\n\n[Wiktionary\nFree dictionary](//www.wiktionary.org/)\n\n[Wikibooks\nFree textbooks](//www.wikibooks.org/)\n\n[Wikinews\nFree news source](//www.wikinews.org/)\n\n[Wikidata\nFree knowledge base](//www.wikidata.org/)\n\n[Wikiversity\nFree learning resources](//www.wikiversity.org/)\n\n[Wikiquote\nFree quote compendium](//www.wikiquote.org/)\n\n[MediaWiki\nFree & open wiki software](//www.mediawiki.org/)\n\n[Wikisource\nFree content library](//www.wikisource.org/)\n\n[Wikispecies\nFree species directory](//species.wikimedia.org/)\n\n[Wikifunctions\nFree function library](//www.wikifunctions.org/)\n\n[Meta-Wiki\nCommunity coordination & documentation](//meta.wikimedia.org/)\n\n\n\n---\n\nThis page is available under the [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)\n[Terms of Use](https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use)\n[Privacy Policy](https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy)",
"name": "Wikipedia",
"id": "https://www.wikipedia.org/",
"description": "Webpage content",
"content": "Wikipedia\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWikipedia\n**The Free Encyclopedia**\n===================================\n\nWikipedia\n**25 years of the free encyclopedia**\n===============================================\n\n[**English**\n7,141,000+ articles](//en.wikipedia.org/ \"English \u2014 Wikipedia \u2014 The Free Encyclopedia\")\n\n[**\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e**\n1,491,000+ \u8a18\u4e8b](//ja.wikipedia.org/ \"Nihongo \u2014 \u30a6\u30a3\u30ad\u30da\u30c7\u30a3\u30a2 \u2014 \u30d5\u30ea\u30fc\u767e\u79d1\u4e8b\u5178\")\n\n[**Deutsch**\n3.099.000+ Artikel](//de.wikipedia.org/ \"Deutsch \u2014 Wikipedia \u2014 Die freie Enzyklop\u00e4die\")\n\n[**\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439**\n2\u00a0087\u00a0000+ \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0439](//ru.wikipedia.org/ \"Russkiy \u2014 \u0412\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f \u2014 \u0421\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u044d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f\")\n\n[**Fran\u00e7ais**\n2\u202f740\u202f000+ articles](//fr.wikipedia.org/ \"Fran\u00e7ais \u2014 Wikip\u00e9dia \u2014 L\u2019encyclop\u00e9die libre\")\n\n[**Espa\u00f1ol**\n2.095.000+ art\u00edculos](//es.wikipedia.org/ \"Espa\u00f1ol \u2014 Wikipedia \u2014 La enciclopedia libre\")\n\n[**Italiano**\n1.957.000+ voci](//it.wikipedia.org/ \"Italiano \u2014 Wikipedia \u2014 L'enciclopedia libera\")\n\n[**\u4e2d\u6587**\n1,524,000+ \u6761\u76ee / \u689d\u76ee](//zh.wikipedia.org/ \"Zh\u014dngw\u00e9n \u2014 \u7ef4\u57fa\u767e\u79d1 / \u7dad\u57fa\u767e\u79d1 \u2014 \u81ea\u7531\u7684\u767e\u79d1\u5168\u4e66 / \u81ea\u7531\u7684\u767e\u79d1\u5168\u66f8\")\n\n[**Portugu\u00eas**\n1.165.000+ artigos](//pt.wikipedia.org/ \"Portugu\u00eas \u2014 Wikip\u00e9dia \u2014 A Enciclop\u00e9dia Livre\")\n\n[**Polski**\n1\u00a0685\u00a0000+ hase\u0142](//pl.wikipedia.org/ \"Polski \u2014 Wikipedia \u2014 Wolna encyklopedia\")\n\nUnlock birthday surprises on Wikipedia\n\nLearn how to turn on Birthday mode so you and Baby Globe can explore Wikipedia together!\n\nUnlock birthday surprises on Wikipedia\n--------------------------------------\n\nLearn how to turn on Birthday mode so you and Baby Globe can explore Wikipedia together!\n\nLearn more\n\nSearch Wikipedia\n\n\nAfrikaans\nShqip\n\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\nAsturianu\nAz\u0259rbaycanca\n\u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n\u95a9\u5357\u8a9e / B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\n\u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n\u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\nCatal\u00e0\n\u010ce\u0161tina\nCymraeg\nDansk\nDeutsch\nEesti\n\u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\nEnglish\nEspa\u00f1ol\nEsperanto\nEuskara\n\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\nFran\u00e7ais\nGalego\n\ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n\u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n\u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\nHrvatski\nBahasa Indonesia\nItaliano\n\u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n\u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\nLadin\nLatina\nLatvie\u0161u\nLietuvi\u0173\nMagyar\n\u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\nMalagasy\n\u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n\u0645\u0635\u0631\u0649\nBahasa Melayu\nBahaso Minangkabau\n\u1019\u103c\u1014\u103a\u1019\u102c\u1018\u102c\u101e\u102c\nNederlands\n\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\nNorsk (bokm\u00e5l)\nNorsk (nynorsk)\n\u041d\u043e\u0445\u0447\u0438\u0439\u043d\nO\u02bbzbekcha / \u040e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430\nPolski\nPortugu\u00eas\n\u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430 / Qazaq\u015fa / \u0642\u0627\u0632\u0627\u0642\u0634\u0627\nRom\u00e2n\u0103\nSimple English\nSinugboanong Binisaya\nSloven\u010dina\nSloven\u0161\u010dina\n\u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 / Srpski\nSrpskohrvatski / \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\nSuomi\nSvenska\nKiswahili\n\u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n\u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0430 / Tatar\u00e7a\n\u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41\n\u0e20\u0e32\u0e29\u0e32\u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n\u0422\u043e\u04b7\u0438\u043a\u04e3\n\u062a\u06c6\u0631\u06a9\u062c\u0647\nT\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n\u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n\u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648\nTi\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\nWinaray\n\u4e2d\u6587\n\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n\u7cb5\u8a9e\n\n*Search*\n\nRead Wikipedia in your language\n\n1,000,000+\n\narticles\n--------------------\n\n* [\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629](//ar.wikipedia.org/ \"Al-\u02bfArab\u012byah\")\n* [Deutsch](//de.wikipedia.org/)\n* [English](//en.wikipedia.org/ \"English\")\n* [Espa\u00f1ol](//es.wikipedia.org/ \"Espa\u00f1ol\")\n* [\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc](//fa.wikipedia.org/ \"F\u0101rsi\")\n* [Fran\u00e7ais](//fr.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Italiano](//it.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0645\u0635\u0631\u0649](//arz.wikipedia.org/ \"Ma\u1e63r\u012b\")\n* [Nederlands](//nl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e](//ja.wikipedia.org/ \"Nihongo\")\n* [Polski](//pl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Portugu\u00eas](//pt.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sinugboanong Binisaya](//ceb.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Svenska](//sv.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430](//uk.wikipedia.org/ \"Ukrayins\u2019ka\")\n* [Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t](//vi.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Winaray](//war.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u4e2d\u6587](//zh.wikipedia.org/ \"Zh\u014dngw\u00e9n\")\n* [\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439](//ru.wikipedia.org/ \"Russkiy\")\n\n100,000+\n\narticles\n------------------\n\n* [Afrikaans](//af.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Shqip](//sq.wikipedia.org/ \"Anglisht\")\n* [Asturianu](//ast.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Az\u0259rbaycanca](//az.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438](//bg.wikipedia.org/ \"B\u01celgarski\")\n* [\u95a9\u5357\u8a9e / B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa](//zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/ \"B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\")\n* [\u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be](//bn.wikipedia.org/ \"Bangla\")\n* [\u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f](//be.wikipedia.org/ \"Belaruskaya\")\n* [Catal\u00e0](//ca.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u010ce\u0161tina](//cs.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Cymraeg](//cy.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Dansk](//da.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Eesti](//et.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac](//el.wikipedia.org/ \"Ell\u012bnik\u00e1\")\n* [Esperanto](//eo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Euskara](//eu.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Galego](//gl.wikipedia.org/ \"Galego\")\n* [\ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4](//ko.wikipedia.org/ \"Hangugeo\")\n* [\u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576](//hy.wikipedia.org/ \"Hayeren\")\n* [\u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940](//hi.wikipedia.org/ \"Hind\u012b\")\n* [Hrvatski](//hr.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Bahasa Indonesia](//id.wikipedia.org/ \"Bahasa Inggris\")\n* [\u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea](//he.wikipedia.org/ \"Ivrit\")\n* [\u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8](//ka.wikipedia.org/ \"Kartuli\")\n* [Ladin](//lld.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Latina](//la.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Latvie\u0161u](//lv.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Lietuvi\u0173](//lt.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Magyar](//hu.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438](//mk.wikipedia.org/ \"Makedonski\")\n* [Malagasy](//mg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940](//mr.wikipedia.org/ \"Marathi\")\n* [Bahasa Melayu](//ms.wikipedia.org/ \"Bahasa Melayu\")\n* [Bahaso Minangkabau](//min.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u1019\u103c\u1014\u103a\u1019\u102c\u1018\u102c\u101e\u102c](//my.wikipedia.org/ \"Myanmarsar\")\n* Norsk\n + [bokm\u00e5l](//no.wikipedia.org/)\n + [nynorsk](//nn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041d\u043e\u0445\u0447\u0438\u0439\u043d](//ce.wikipedia.org/ \"Nox\u00e7iyn\")\n* [O\u02bbzbekcha / \u040e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430](//uz.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430 / Qazaq\u015fa / \u0642\u0627\u0632\u0627\u0642\u0634\u0627](//kk.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Rom\u00e2n\u0103](//ro.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Simple English](//simple.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sloven\u010dina](//sk.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sloven\u0161\u010dina](//sl.wikipedia.org/ \"Sloven\u0161\u010dina\")\n* [\u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 / Srpski](//sr.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Srpskohrvatski / \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438](//sh.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Suomi](//fi.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kiswahili](//sw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd](//ta.wikipedia.org/ \"Tami\u1e3b\")\n* [\u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0430 / Tatar\u00e7a](//tt.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41](//te.wikipedia.org/ \"Telugu\")\n* [\u0e20\u0e32\u0e29\u0e32\u0e44\u0e17\u0e22](//th.wikipedia.org/ \"Phasa Thai\")\n* [\u0422\u043e\u04b7\u0438\u043a\u04e3](//tg.wikipedia.org/ \"Tojik\u012b\")\n* [\u062a\u06c6\u0631\u06a9\u062c\u0647](//azb.wikipedia.org/ \"T\u00fcrkce\")\n* [T\u00fcrk\u00e7e](//tr.wikipedia.org/ \"T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\")\n* [\u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648](//ur.wikipedia.org/ \"Urdu\")\n* [\u7cb5\u8a9e](//zh-yue.wikipedia.org/)\n\n10,000+\n\narticles\n-----------------\n\n* [Bahsa Ac\u00e8h](//ace.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Alemannisch](//als.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u12a0\u121b\u122d\u129b](//am.wikipedia.org/ \"\u0100mari\u00f1\u00f1\u0101\")\n* [Aragon\u00e9s](//an.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0531\u0580\u0565\u0582\u0574\u057f\u0561\u0570\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0567\u0576](//hyw.wikipedia.org/ \"Arevmdahayeren\")\n* [Bahasa Hulontalo](//gor.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Basa Bali](//ban.wikipedia.org/ \"Basa Bali\")\n* [Bahasa Banjar](//bjn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Basa Banyumasan](//map-bms.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0411\u0430\u0448\u04a1\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0441\u0430](//ba.wikipedia.org/ \"Ba\u015fqortsa\")\n* [\u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)](//be-tarask.wikipedia.org/ \"Bielaruskaja (tara\u0161kievica)\")\n* [Bikol Central](//bcl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u09ac\u09bf\u09b7\u09cd\u09a3\u09c1\u09aa\u09cd\u09b0\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be \u09ae\u09a3\u09bf\u09aa\u09c1\u09b0\u09c0](//bpy.wikipedia.org/ \"Bishnupriya Manipuri\")\n* [Boarisch](//bar.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Bosanski](//bs.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Brezhoneg](//br.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0427\u04d1\u0432\u0430\u0448\u043b\u0430](//cv.wikipedia.org/ \"\u010c\u0103va\u0161la\")\n* [Dagbanli](//dag.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0627\u0644\u062f\u0627\u0631\u062c\u0629](//ary.wikipedia.org/ \"Darija\")\n* [Din\u00e9 Bizaad](//nv.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Emigli\u00e0n\u2013Rumagn\u00f2l](//eml.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Fiji Hindi](//hif.wikipedia.org/)\n* [F\u00f8royskt](//fo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Frysk](//fy.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Fulfulde](//ff.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Gaeilge](//ga.wikipedia.org/)\n* [G\u00e0idhlig](//gd.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u06af\u06cc\u0644\u06a9\u06cc](//glk.wikipedia.org/ \"Gil\u0259ki\")\n* [\u0a97\u0ac1\u0a9c\u0ab0\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0](//gu.wikipedia.org/ \"Gujarati\")\n* [Hak-k\u00e2-ng\u00ee / \u5ba2\u5bb6\u8a9e](//hak.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Hausa](//ha.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Hornjoserbsce](//hsb.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Ido](//io.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Igbo](//ig.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Ilokano](//ilo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Interlingua](//ia.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Interlingue](//ie.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0418\u0440\u043e\u043d](//os.wikipedia.org/ \"Iron\")\n* [\u00cdslenska](//is.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Jawa](//jv.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0c95\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0ca1](//kn.wikipedia.org/ \"Kannada\")\n* [Kapampangan](//pam.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u1797\u17b6\u179f\u17b6\u1781\u17d2\u1798\u17c2\u179a](//km.wikipedia.org/ \"Ph\u00e9asa Khm\u00e9r\")\n* [Kotava](//avk.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Krey\u00f2l Ayisyen](//ht.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kurd\u00ee / \u0643\u0648\u0631\u062f\u06cc](//ku.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u06a9\u0648\u0631\u062f\u06cc\u06cc \u0646\u0627\u0648\u06d5\u0646\u062f\u06cc](//ckb.wikipedia.org/ \"Kurd\u00eey Nawend\u00ee\")\n* [\u041a\u044b\u0440\u0433\u044b\u0437\u0447\u0430](//ky.wikipedia.org/ \"Kyrgyz\u010da\")\n* [\u041a\u044b\u0440\u044b\u043a \u043c\u0430\u0440\u044b](//mrj.wikipedia.org/ \"Kyryk Mary\")\n* [L\u00ebtzebuergesch](//lb.wikipedia.org/)\n* [L\u00ecgure](//lij.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Limburgs](//li.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Lombard](//lmo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u092e\u0948\u0925\u093f\u0932\u0940](//mai.wikipedia.org/ \"Maithil\u012b\")\n* [\u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02](//ml.wikipedia.org/ \"Malayalam\")\n* [\u10db\u10d0\u10e0\u10d2\u10d0\u10da\u10e3\u10e0\u10d8](//xmf.wikipedia.org/ \"Margaluri\")\n* [\u0645\u0627\u0632\u0650\u0631\u0648\u0646\u06cc](//mzn.wikipedia.org/ \"M\u00e4zeruni\")\n* [M\u00ecng-d\u0115\u0324ng-ng\u1e73\u0304 / \u95a9\u6771\u8a9e](//cdo.wikipedia.org/ \"Ming-deng-ngu\")\n* [\u041c\u043e\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b](//mn.wikipedia.org/ \"Mongol\")\n* [Napulitano](//nap.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e](//new.wikipedia.org/ \"Nepal Bhasa\")\n* [Nordfriisk](//frr.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Occitan](//oc.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041e\u043b\u044b\u043a \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439](//mhr.wikipedia.org/ \"Olyk Marij\")\n* [\u0b13\u0b21\u0b3f\u0b3c\u0b06](//or.wikipedia.org/ \"O\u1e5bi\u0101\")\n* [\u0985\u09b8\u09ae\u09c0\u09af\u09be\u09bc](//as.wikipedia.org/ \"\u00d4x\u00f4miya\")\n* [\u0a2a\u0a70\u0a1c\u0a3e\u0a2c\u0a40](//pa.wikipedia.org/ \"Pa\u00f1j\u0101b\u012b (Gurmukh\u012b)\")\n* [\u067e\u0646\u062c\u0627\u0628\u06cc (\u0634\u0627\u06c1 \u0645\u06a9\u06be\u06cc)](//pnb.wikipedia.org/ \"Pa\u00f1j\u0101b\u012b (Sh\u0101hmukh\u012b)\")\n* [\u067e\u069a\u062a\u0648](//ps.wikipedia.org/ \"Pa\u0282to\")\n* [Piemont\u00e8is](//pms.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Plattd\u00fc\u00fctsch](//nds.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Qaraqalpaqsha](//kaa.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Q\u0131r\u0131mtatarca](//crh.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Runa Simi](//qu.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438\u043d\u044c\u0441\u043a\u044b\u0439](//rue.wikipedia.org/ \"Rusin\u2019skyj\")\n* [\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u092e\u094d](//sa.wikipedia.org/ \"Sa\u1e43sk\u1e5btam\")\n* [\u1c65\u1c5f\u1c71\u1c5b\u1c5f\u1c72\u1c64](//sat.wikipedia.org/ \"Santali\")\n* [\u0633\u0631\u0627\u0626\u06cc\u06a9\u06cc](//skr.wikipedia.org/ \"Saraiki\")\n* [\u0421\u0430\u0445\u0430 \u0422\u044b\u043b\u0430](//sah.wikipedia.org/ \"Saxa Tyla\")\n* [Scots](//sco.wikipedia.org/)\n* [ChiShona](//sn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sicilianu](//scn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0dc3\u0dd2\u0d82\u0dc4\u0dbd](//si.wikipedia.org/ \"Si\u1e43hala\")\n* [\u0633\u0646\u068c\u064a](//sd.wikipedia.org/ \"Sindh\u012b\")\n* [\u015al\u016fnski](//szl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Soomaaliga](//so.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Basa Sunda](//su.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tacl\u1e25it](//shi.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tagalog](//tl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u107d\u1083\u1087\u101e\u1083\u1087\u1010\u1086\u1038](//shn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u2d5c\u2d30\u2d4e\u2d30\u2d63\u2d49\u2d56\u2d5c \u2d5c\u2d30\u2d4f\u2d30\u2d61\u2d30\u2d62\u2d5c](//zgh.wikipedia.org/ \"Tamazight tanawayt\")\n* [tol\u0131\u015fi](//tly.wikipedia.org/)\n* [chiTumbuka](//tum.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Basa Ugi](//bug.wikipedia.org/)\n* [V\u00e8neto](//vec.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Volap\u00fck](//vo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Walon](//wa.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u6587\u8a00](//zh-classical.wikipedia.org/ \"W\u00e9ny\u00e1n\")\n* [\u5434\u8bed](//wuu.wikipedia.org/ \"W\u00fay\u01d4\")\n* [\u05d9\u05d9\u05b4\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9](//yi.wikipedia.org/ \"Yidi\u0161\")\n* [Yor\u00f9b\u00e1](//yo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Zazaki](//diq.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u017demait\u0117\u0161ka](//bat-smg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [isiZulu](//zu.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0940](//ne.wikipedia.org/ \"Nep\u0101l\u012b\")\n* [\uabc3\uabe4\uabc7\uabe9 \uabc2\uabe3\uabdf](//mni.wikipedia.org/)\n\n1,000+\n\narticles\n----------------\n\n* [Dzhudezmo / \u05dc\u05d0\u05d3\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5](//lad.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0410\u0434\u044b\u0433\u044d\u0431\u0437\u044d](//kbd.wikipedia.org/ \"Adighabze\")\n* [\u00c6nglisc](//ang.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Anar\u00e2\u0161kiel\u00e2](//smn.wikipedia.org/ \"Anar\u00e2\u0161kiel\u00e2\")\n* [\u0905\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915\u093e](//anp.wikipedia.org/ \"Angika\")\n* [\u0410\u0525\u0441\u0448\u04d9\u0430](//ab.wikipedia.org/ \"A\u1e57sshwa\")\n* [arm\u00e3neashti](//roa-rup.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Arpitan](//frp.wikipedia.org/)\n* [atikamekw](//atj.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0710\u072c\u0718\u072a\u071d\u0710](//arc.wikipedia.org/ \"\u0100t\u00fbr\u0101y\u00e2\")\n* [Ava\u00f1e\u2019\u1ebd](//gn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0410\u0432\u0430\u0440](//av.wikipedia.org/ \"Avar\")\n* [Aymar](//ay.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Batak Toba](//bbc.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Betawi](//bew.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u092d\u094b\u091c\u092a\u0941\u0930\u0940](//bh.wikipedia.org/ \"Bh\u014djapur\u012b\")\n* [Bislama](//bi.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0f56\u0f7c\u0f51\u0f0b\u0f61\u0f72\u0f42](//bo.wikipedia.org/ \"Bod Skad\")\n* [\u0411\u0443\u0440\u044f\u0430\u0434](//bxr.wikipedia.org/ \"Buryad\")\n* [Chavacano de Zamboanga](//cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Chichewa](//ny.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Corsu](//co.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Vahcuengh / \u8a71\u50ee](//za.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Dagaare](//dga.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Davvis\u00e1megiella](//se.wikipedia.org/ \"Davvis\u00e1megiella\")\n* [Deitsch](//pdc.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u078b\u07a8\u0788\u07ac\u0780\u07a8\u0784\u07a6\u0790\u07b0](//dv.wikipedia.org/ \"Divehi\")\n* [Dolnoserbski](//dsb.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u042d\u0440\u0437\u044f\u043d\u044c](//myv.wikipedia.org/ \"Erzjanj\")\n* [Estreme\u00f1u](//ext.wikipedia.org/)\n* [E\u028begbe](//ee.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Farefare](//gur.wikipedia.org/)\n* [F\u0254\u0300ngb\u00e8](//fon.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Furlan](//fur.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Gaelg](//gv.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Gagauz](//gag.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0413\u04c0\u0430\u043b\u0433\u04c0\u0430\u0439](//inh.wikipedia.org/ \"Ghalghai\")\n* [Ghanaian Pidgin](//gpe.wikipedia.org/)\n* [G\u0129k\u0169y\u0169](//ki.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u8d63\u8bed / \u8d1b\u8a9e](//gan.wikipedia.org/ \"Gon ua\")\n* [Gungbe](//guw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\ud800\udf32\ud800\udf3f\ud800\udf44\ud800\udf39\ud800\udf43\ud800\udf3a](//got.wikipedia.org/ \"Gutisk\")\n* [\u0425\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0433](//xal.wikipedia.org/ \"Hal\u02b9mg\")\n* [\u02bb\u014clelo Hawai\u02bbi](//haw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Ikinyarwanda](//rw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Jaku Iban](//iba.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kab\u0269y\u025b](//kbp.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kadazandusun](//dtp.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Yerwa Kanuri](//knc.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kasz\u00ebbsczi](//csb.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kernewek](//kw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041a\u043e\u043c\u0438](//kv.wikipedia.org/ \"Komi\")\n* [\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0438](//koi.wikipedia.org/ \"Perem Komi\")\n* [Kongo](//kg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0915\u094b\u0902\u0915\u0923\u0940 / Konknni](//gom.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0643\u0672\u0634\u064f\u0631](//ks.wikipedia.org/ \"Koshur\")\n* [Kriy\u00f2l Gwiyannen](//gcr.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Kumoring](//kge.wikipedia.org/)\n* [K\u028bsaal](//kus.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0e9e\u0eb2\u0eaa\u0eb2\u0ea5\u0eb2\u0ea7](//lo.wikipedia.org/ \"Phaasaa Laao\")\n* [\u041b\u0430\u043a\u043a\u0443](//lbe.wikipedia.org/ \"Lakku\")\n* [Latga\u013cu](//ltg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041b\u0435\u0437\u0433\u0438](//lez.wikipedia.org/ \"Lezgi\")\n* [Li Niha](//nia.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Ling\u00e1la](//ln.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Lingua Franca Nova](//lfn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [livvinkarjala](//olo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [lojban](//jbo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Luganda](//lg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Madhur\u00e2](//mad.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Malti](//mt.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Mandailing](//btm.wikipedia.org/)\n* [M\u0101ori](//mi.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Mfantse](//fat.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Mirand\u00e9s](//mwl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041c\u043e\u043a\u0448\u0435\u043d\u044c](//mdf.wikipedia.org/ \"Mok\u0161enj\")\n* [\u1018\u102c\u101e\u102c \u1019\u1014\u103a](//mnw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Moore](//mos.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u07d2\u07de\u07cf](//nqo.wikipedia.org/ \"N'Ko\")\n* [Na Vosa Vaka-Viti](//fj.wikipedia.org/)\n* [N\u0101huatlaht\u014dlli](//nah.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Naij\u00e1](//pcm.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Nedersaksisch](//nds-nl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Nouormand / Normaund](//nrm.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Novial](//nov.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Afaan Oromoo](//om.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u1015\u1021\u102d\u102f\u101d\u103a\u108f\u1018\u102c\u108f\u101e\u102c\u108f](//blk.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Pangasin\u00e1n](//pag.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Pangcah](//ami.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Papiamentu](//pap.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Patois](//jam.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Pf\u00e4lzisch](//pfl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Picard](//pcd.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u041a\u044a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0439\u2013\u043c\u0430\u043b\u043a\u044a\u0430\u0440](//krc.wikipedia.org/ \"Qara\u00e7ay\u2013Malqar\")\n* [Ripoarisch](//ksh.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Rumantsch](//rm.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0420\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0438](//rsk.wikipedia.org/ \"Ruski\")\n* [Sakizaya](//szy.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Gagana S\u0101moa](//sm.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sardu](//sc.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Seediq](//trv.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Seeltersk](//stq.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sesotho](//st.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Sesotho sa Leboa](//nso.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Setswana](//tn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\ua80d\ua824\ua81f\ua810\ua824](//syl.wikipedia.org/ \"Sil\u00f4\u1e6di\")\n* [\u0421\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0463\u0301\u043d\u044c\u0441\u043a\u044a / \u2c14\u2c0e\u2c11\u2c02\u2c21\u2c10\u2c20\u2c14\u2c0d\u2c1f](//cu.wikipedia.org/ \"Slov\u011bn\u012dsk\u016d\")\n* [Sranantongo](//srn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [SiSwati](//ss.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Reo tahiti](//ty.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Taqbaylit](//kab.wikipedia.org/ \"Taqbaylit\")\n* [Tarand\u00edne](//roa-tara.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tayal](//tay.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tetun](//tet.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tok Pisin](//tpi.wikipedia.org/)\n* [toki pona](//tok.wikipedia.org/ \"toki pona\")\n* [faka Tonga](//to.wikipedia.org/)\n* [T\u00fcrkmen\u00e7e](//tk.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Twi](//tw.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tyap](//kcg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0422\u044b\u0432\u0430 \u0434\u044b\u043b](//tyv.wikipedia.org/ \"Tyva dyl\")\n* [\u0423\u0434\u043c\u0443\u0440\u0442](//udm.wikipedia.org/ \"Udmurt\")\n* [\u0626\u06c7\u064a\u063a\u06c7\u0631\u0686\u0647](//ug.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Veps\u00e4n](//vep.wikipedia.org/)\n* [v\u00f5ro](//fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/)\n* [West-Vlams](//vls.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Wolof](//wo.wikipedia.org/)\n* [isiXhosa](//xh.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Ze\u00eauws](//zea.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0430\u043b\u0442\u0430\u0439 \u0442\u0438\u043b](//alt.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0905\u0935\u0927\u0940](//awa.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0921\u094b\u091f\u0947\u0932\u0940](//dty.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0ca4\u0cc1\u0cb3\u0cc1](//tcy.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u101b\u1001\u102d\u102f\u1004\u103a](//rki.wikipedia.org/)\n\n100+\n\narticles\n--------------\n\n* [Bajau Sama](//bdr.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Bamanankan](//bm.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Chamoru](//ch.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0f62\u0fab\u0f7c\u0f44\u0f0b\u0f41](//dz.wikipedia.org/ \"Rdzong-Kha\")\n* [Igala](//igl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u1403\u14c4\u1483\u144e\u1450\u1466 / Inuktitut](//iu.wikipedia.org/)\n* [I\u00f1upiak](//ik.wikipedia.org/)\n* [isiNdebele seSewula](//nr.wikipedia.org/ \"isiNdebele seSewula\")\n* [Jju](//kaj.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Nawat](//ppl.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Nupe](//nup.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Obolo](//ann.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u092a\u093e\u0932\u093f](//pi.wikipedia.org/ \"P\u0101\u1e37i\")\n* [pinayuanan](//pwn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u03a0\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03ac](//pnt.wikipedia.org/ \"Pontiak\u00e1\")\n* [Romani \u010dhib](//rmy.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Ikirundi](//rn.wikipedia.org/)\n* [S\u00e4ng\u00f6](//sg.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u1956\u196d\u1970\u1956\u196c\u1973\u1951\u1968\u1952\u1970](//tdd.wikipedia.org/ \"Tai ta\u026f xo\u014b\")\n* [\u1275\u130d\u122d\u129b](//ti.wikipedia.org/ \"T\u0259g\u0259r\u0259\u00f1a\")\n* [Thu\u0254\u014bj\u00e4\u014b](//din.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u13e3\u13b3\u13a9](//chr.wikipedia.org/ \"Tsalagi\")\n* [Ts\u0117hesen\u0117stsestotse](//chy.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Xitsonga](//ts.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Tshiven\u1e13a](//ve.wikipedia.org/)\n* [Wayuunaiki](//guc.wikipedia.org/)\n* [\u0430\u0434\u044b\u0433\u0430\u0431\u0437\u044d](//ady.wikipedia.org/)\n\n[Other languages](https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/List_of_Wikipedias)\n\n\n\n---\n\n\n\nWikipedia is hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation, a non-profit organization that also hosts a range of other projects.\n\n[You can support our work with a donation.](https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_medium=portal&wmf_campaign=portalFooter&wmf_source=portalFooter)\n\n**[Download Wikipedia for Android or iOS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wikipedia_mobile_applications)**\n\nSave your favorite articles to read offline, sync your reading lists across devices and customize your reading experience with the official Wikipedia app.\n\n* [Google Play Store](https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=org.wikipedia&referrer=utm_source%3Dportal%26utm_medium%3Dbutton%26anid%3Dadmob)\n* [Apple App Store](https://itunes.apple.com/app/apple-store/id324715238?pt=208305&ct=portal&mt=8)\n\nBirthday mode\n\n[Commons\nFree media collection](//commons.wikimedia.org/)\n\n[Wikivoyage\nFree travel guide](//www.wikivoyage.org/)\n\n[Wiktionary\nFree dictionary](//www.wiktionary.org/)\n\n[Wikibooks\nFree textbooks](//www.wikibooks.org/)\n\n[Wikinews\nFree news source](//www.wikinews.org/)\n\n[Wikidata\nFree knowledge base](//www.wikidata.org/)\n\n[Wikiversity\nFree learning resources](//www.wikiversity.org/)\n\n[Wikiquote\nFree quote compendium](//www.wikiquote.org/)\n\n[MediaWiki\nFree & open wiki software](//www.mediawiki.org/)\n\n[Wikisource\nFree content library](//www.wikisource.org/)\n\n[Wikispecies\nFree species directory](//species.wikimedia.org/)\n\n[Wikifunctions\nFree function library](//www.wikifunctions.org/)\n\n[Meta-Wiki\nCommunity coordination & documentation](//meta.wikimedia.org/)\n\n\n\n---\n\nThis page is available under the [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)\n[Terms of Use](https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use)\n[Privacy Policy](https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy)",
"cached": true
}metadata, content = await fetch_url("https://knwler.com/pdfs/HumanRights.pdf")
print(json.dumps(metadata, indent=2)){
"id": "https://knwler.com/pdfs/HumanRights.pdf",
"name": "HumanRights.pdf",
"file_path": "/Users/swa/.knwler/cache/documents/7cc2d8fb74f70bdb82d194fb5ddc59c55f238dbf17dfed0375034b34495141c2.pdf",
"extension": "pdf",
"cached": true
}and the content will be in this case binary. You can save it like so:
with open("HumanRights.pdf", "wb") as f:
f.write(content)Parsing PDF files
from knwler.api import parse_pdf
import os
md = await parse_pdf(os.path.join(os.getcwd(), "HumanRights.pdf"))
print(md[:500])Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Preamble
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable
rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice
and peace in the world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous
acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world
in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom
from fear and want has been proclaiChunking
You can use the methods above to fetch markdown or you have some text/markdown available:
# use some pdf
md = await parse_pdf(os.path.join(os.getcwd(), "HumanRights.pdf"))
# or read in text
# with open("~/document.md", "r") as f:
# text = f.read()
from knwler.api import Config, chunk
config = Config(max_tokens=200, overlap_tokens=20)
chunks = await chunk(md, config=config)print(f"There are {len(chunks)} chunks, the first chunk is:\n\n{chunks[0]}")There are 14 chunks, the first chunk is:
Chunk(text='Universal Declaration of Human Rights \nPreamble \nWhereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable \nrights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice \nand peace in the world, \nWhereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous \nacts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world \nin which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom \nfrom fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common \npeople, \nWhereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last \nresort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be \nprotected by the rule of law, \nWhereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between \nnations, \nWhereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their \nfaith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth', chunk_idx=0, id='aae38d3c-2be8-4985-9957-2ba66346907f')Schema
Simply said, a schema defines the type of words and the relations between these words that matter to you. It is a set of entity types and relationships. You can define them or you can let Knwler decide (via a LLM):
from knwler.api import infer_schema
from dataclasses import asdict
import json
schema = await infer_schema(md, config=config)
print(json.dumps(asdict(schema), indent=2)){
"entity_types": [
"declaration",
"article",
"right",
"freedom",
"principle",
"nation",
"state",
"person",
"family",
"property",
"religion",
"marriage",
"asylum",
"nationality",
"conscience",
"thought",
"speech",
"art",
"literature",
"scientific_production"
],
"relation_types": [
"declares",
"defines",
"protects",
"guarantees",
"violates",
"promotes",
"requires",
"supports",
"opposes",
"limits",
"includes",
"concerns",
"entitles_to",
"prohibits",
"allows",
"regulates",
"protects_from",
"derives_from",
"results_in",
"affects"
],
"reasoning": "The text primarily focuses on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, detailing various rights and freedoms. It outlines principles that nations should uphold to ensure these rights are protected and respected. The entity types cover key concepts mentioned in the declaration, while relation types capture how these entities interact with each other.",
"discovery_time": 0.0030408749589696527
}The inferred schema can be changed after discovery, there is nothing holy in what the LLM suggests. If you want to define your own schema you can use something like this:
from knwler.models import Schema
schema = Schema(entity_types=["person", "size"], relation_types=["has_size"])Language
The graph extraction uses internally language detection but if you want to use it standalone you can access it like this:
from knwler.api import discover_language
dic = {
"fr": "L'importance de la découverte de la langue ne peut être surestimée.",
"es": "La importancia del descubrimiento del idioma no puede ser subestimada.",
"cn":"语言发现的重要性不容小觑。",
"nl": "Het belang van taalontdekking kan niet worden overschat.",
"en": "The importance of language discovery cannot be overstated."
}
for lang, sentence in dic.items():
language = await discover_language(sentence, config=config)
print(f"Detected language for '{sentence}': {language}") Detected language for 'L'importance de la découverte de la langue ne peut être surestimée.': fr
Detected language for 'La importancia del descubrimiento del idioma no puede ser subestimada.': es
Detected language for '语言发现的重要性不容小觑。': zh
Detected language for 'Het belang van taalontdekking kan niet worden overschat.': nl
Detected language for 'The importance of language discovery cannot be overstated.': enIf you want to set/override the language use the set_language method from knwler.api.
Extraction
You can extract a pdf, a piece of text of a collection of chunks with the same API method.
from knwler.api import extract, Config, Schema
from knwler.language import get_current_language
schema = Schema(entity_types=["animal", "object"], relation_types=["is_on"])
g = await extract("The cat is on the table.", schema, config=Config())The result contains the schema, the knowledge graph and the chunks:
import json
from dataclasses import asdict
print(json.dumps(asdict(g), indent=2)){
"graph": {
"entities": [
{
"name": "cat",
"type": "animal",
"description": "A feline pet.",
"chunk_ids": [
"0740b7bf-1da8-44ed-8690-1eeb0f22736e"
],
"id": "35a352bf-4d12-4da0-a561-0c80170ca0e9"
},
{
"name": "table",
"type": "object",
"description": "A piece of furniture used for eating, writing, or working on.",
"chunk_ids": [
"0740b7bf-1da8-44ed-8690-1eeb0f22736e"
],
"id": "f4c3c8ce-1009-4f4c-810f-4b1b40c493e0"
}
],
"relations": [
{
"source": "cat",
"source_type": "animal",
"target": "table",
"target_type": "object",
"type": "is_on",
"description": "The cat is positioned above the surface of the table.",
"strength": 8.0,
"chunk_ids": [
"0740b7bf-1da8-44ed-8690-1eeb0f22736e"
],
"id": "6bbbefac-8a40-497e-91ce-e5b7b46ccfa3"
}
]
},
"chunks": [
{
"text": "The cat is on the table.",
"chunk_idx": 0,
"id": "0740b7bf-1da8-44ed-8690-1eeb0f22736e"
}
],
"schema": {
"entity_types": [
"animal",
"object"
],
"relation_types": [
"is_on"
],
"reasoning": "",
"discovery_time": 0.0
},
"id": "a85b8ec9-f710-43b3-bb67-1308077c7d09",
"title": "",
"url": null,
"content": null,
"language": null,
"summary": null
}You can also give the method a pdf. In this short pdf there are nine people coming from various countries:
from knwler.api import Chunk, Schema, Config, extract
from pathlib import Path
import os
file_path = Path("./People.pdf")
if not file_path.exists():
from knwler.api import fetch_url
url = "https://knwler.com/pdfs/People.pdf"
metadata, bytes = await fetch_url(url, no_cache=True)
with open(file_path, "wb") as f:
f.write(bytes)
schema = Schema(entity_types=["person", "country"], relation_types=["is_from"])
r = await extract(file_path, schema=schema, config=Config())
print([e["name"] for e in r.graph.entities if e["type"] == "person"])['Elena Petrova', 'Samuel Okoye', 'Lucía Fernández', 'Noah Williams', 'Sofia Dimitriou', 'Hassan Al-Masri', 'Mei-Ling Chen', 'Arjun Mehta', 'Oliver Grant']Consolidation
If you have various documents around a common domain you likely want to merge the graphs extracted from these documents.
from knwler.api import *
schema1 = Schema(entity_types=["person", "location"], relation_types=["is_from"])
file_path1 = Path("./People.pdf")
if not file_path1.exists():
url = "https://knwler.com/pdfs/People.pdf"
metadata, bytes = await fetch_url(url, no_cache=True)
with open(file_path1, "wb") as f:
f.write(bytes)
schema2 = Schema(entity_types=["city", "country"], relation_types=["located_in"])
file_path2 = Path("./Places.pdf")
if not file_path2.exists():
url = "https://knwler.com/pdfs/Places.pdf"
metadata, bytes = await fetch_url(url, no_cache=True)
with open(file_path2, "wb") as f:
f.write(bytes)
config = Config(extraction_model="gemma3:12b")
g1 = await extract(file_path1, schema=schema1, config=config)
g2 = await extract(file_path2, schema=schema2, config=config)
g = await consolidate_document_graphs([g1, g2], config=config, include_chunks=True)
print(json.dumps(asdict(g), indent=2))✓ Graph 831d033a-1b70-4ede-a362-6e738c9e9c7b: 1 chunk(s), 18 entities, 9 relations.
✓ Graph 5cfc1a29-c297-40f6-89d1-bb98d336a4d9: 1 chunk(s), 18 entities, 9 relations.
✓ Aggregated 2 chunks, 2 documents, 4 entity types, 2 relation types from all graphs.
{
"graph": {
"entities": [
{
"name": "Elena Petrova",
"type": "person",
"description": "Elena Petrova is a member of the international research collective. She is from Russia.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "c3943eab-4a31-4b99-a8a0-b3fd5af9c474"
},
{
"name": "Samuel Okoye",
"type": "person",
"description": "Samuel Okoye is a member of the international research collective. He is from Nigeria.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "2ff00d8c-427e-43ed-8194-036b83c62773"
},
{
"name": "Luc\u00eda Fern\u00e1ndez",
"type": "person",
"description": "Luc\u00eda Fern\u00e1ndez is a field ecologist and member of the international research collective. She is from Chile.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "25ffa0c7-08de-4c83-85a2-37159b19b22f"
},
{
"name": "Noah Williams",
"type": "person",
"description": "Noah Williams is a member of the international research collective. He represents the United States.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "6a4dffb6-eda4-40a3-9fcd-41bdefd460da"
},
{
"name": "Sofia Dimitriou",
"type": "person",
"description": "Sofia Dimitriou is a member of the international research collective. She is from Greece.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "917042a9-42b3-47ef-a8a7-911bf8605c1a"
},
{
"name": "Hassan Al\u2011Masri",
"type": "person",
"description": "Hassan Al\u2011Masri is a systems analyst and member of the international research collective. He is based in Jordan.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "2676dfb6-eedb-43cb-bea4-7af5d25db8d0"
},
{
"name": "Mei\u2011Ling Chen",
"type": "person",
"description": "Mei\u2011Ling Chen is a member of the international research collective. She grew up in Taiwan.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "bc03dedc-c35c-44c3-ad0c-10e9d514b8b8"
},
{
"name": "Arjun Mehta",
"type": "person",
"description": "Arjun Mehta is a member of the international research collective. He is from India.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "ce4200f6-7476-4d53-b784-07cc43b4ecf7"
},
{
"name": "Oliver Grant",
"type": "person",
"description": "Oliver Grant is a member of the international research collective. He is from New Zealand.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "94bc452a-ee98-4bc3-80b5-92d23af2f4c2"
},
{
"name": "Russia",
"type": "location",
"description": "Russia is the country where Elena Petrova is from.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "41c07bac-d3b3-46c1-870b-2e90c4cf56f2"
},
{
"name": "Nigeria",
"type": "location",
"description": "Nigeria is the country where Samuel Okoye is from.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "02371919-5cad-4ead-b041-9f94bb22746c"
},
{
"name": "Chile",
"type": "location",
"description": "Chile is the country where Luc\u00eda Fern\u00e1ndez is from.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "20de9e43-2699-4308-9636-fd19b7a1305e"
},
{
"name": "United States",
"type": "location",
"description": "The United States is the country that Noah Williams represents.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "46061167-973e-4b9f-b7c3-bf04079813e3"
},
{
"name": "Greece",
"type": "location",
"description": "Greece is the country where Sofia Dimitriou is from.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "42dfcae3-611d-44a7-893b-7949d1f11d75"
},
{
"name": "Jordan",
"type": "location",
"description": "Jordan is the country where Hassan Al\u2011Masri is based.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "ce3cd76e-e05c-42dd-bf7e-008f2611f5e4"
},
{
"name": "Taiwan",
"type": "location",
"description": "Taiwan is the country where Mei-Ling Chen grew up.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "96831116-1c7a-4c55-b6d2-0d0f4b9602ef"
},
{
"name": "India",
"type": "location",
"description": "India is the country where Arjun Mehta is from.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "2527154c-d34b-48fc-bd6a-6995f588e693"
},
{
"name": "New Zealand",
"type": "location",
"description": "New Zealand is the country where Oliver Grant is from.",
"chunk_ids": [
"25d26cd1-b06f-4ef0-b944-4899bc434512"
],
"id": "56f292cd-f7bb-48da-a848-d96bd4f02a8e"
},
{
"name": "Barcelona",
"type": "city",
"description": "Barcelona is a city where planners first emerged in a partnership.",
"chunk_ids": [
"b77bcd3c-0365-4067-beda-006d08aefea1"
],
"id": "6000f577-132e-44c6-8399-e7da4996008e"
},
{
"name": "Spain",
"type": "country",
"description": "Spain is the country where Barcelona is located.",
"chunk_ids": [
"b77bcd3c-0365-4067-beda-006d08aefea1"
],
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"source_type": "person",
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"source_type": "person",
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"text": "People\nThe international research collective began as a small collaboration between Elena Petrova from Russia and Samuel Okoye\nof Nigeria. They met during a climate\u2011modeling workshop and quickly realized their approaches complemented each other.\nSoon after, Luc\u00eda Fern\u00e1ndez, a field ecologist from Chile, joined their efforts to integrate on\u2011site biodiversity data into the\ngroup\u2019s simulations.\nAs the project expanded, new members brought fresh perspectives. Noah Williams, representing the United States,\ncontributed expertise in large\u2011scale data engineering. Meanwhile, Sofia Dimitriou from Greece focused on the ethical\nimplications of the team\u2019s predictive models. Her work often intersected with that of Hassan Al\u2011Masri, a systems analyst\nbased in Jordan, who specialized in long\u2011term environmental risk assessment.\nThe group\u2019s most recent addition is Mei\u2011Ling Chen, who grew up in Taiwan and now works on computational sustainability.\nShe collaborates closely with Arjun Mehta from India, especially on the development of cross\u2011regional datasets. Although the\nteam is geographically dispersed, Oliver Grant in New Zealand coordinates their virtual meetings and ensures that each\nmember\u2019s contributions are integrated into the shared knowledge base.\n",
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"text": "Places\nThe urban development consortium first emerged from a partnership between planners in Barcelona, located in Spain, and\nresearchers based in Seoul in South Korea. Their early work focused on comparing coastal resilience strategies across both\ncities. Soon after, analysts from Cape Town in South Africa joined the initiative, contributing insights on water\u2011scarcity\nmanagement in rapidly growing metropolitan regions.\nAs interest grew, the consortium expanded to include specialists from Vancouver in Canada, who brought expertise in\nsustainable transport networks. Their findings often intersected with studies from Helsinki, the capital of Finland, where\ncold\u2011climate urban design has long been a priority. Meanwhile, a parallel team in S\u00e3o Paulo, one of Brazil\u2019s largest cities,\nexamined how megacities adapt public services to shifting demographic patterns.\nThe most recent collaborations involve researchers in Melbourne, situated in Australia, who are mapping long\u2011term\nheat\u2011island effects. They work closely with colleagues in Istanbul, a major hub in Turkey, to compare how historical districts\nrespond to modern infrastructure demands. Although the consortium spans continents, a coordination office in Lisbon, the\ncapital of Portugal, ensures that data from all participating cities flows into a unified global model.\n",
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}Extras
There are some extra methods in the API you might find useful.
Rephrasing chunks can be useful for reporting but you can also use it prior to extracting graph, this is usually called chunk compression.
from knwler.api import *
chunks = [Chunk(id="chunk1", text="> The $ cat is on the table."), Chunk(id="chunk2", text="The >>dog is in the garden.")]
rephrased_chunks = await rephrase_chunks(chunks, config=Config(extraction_model="gemma3:12b"))
for original, rephrased in zip(chunks, rephrased_chunks):
print(f"Original: {original.text}\nRephrased: {rephrased}\n")Original: > The $ cat is on the table.
Rephrased: Chunk(text='The text says: "The cat is on the table."', chunk_idx=0, id='chunk1')
Original: The >>dog is in the garden.
Rephrased: Chunk(text='A dog is in the garden.', chunk_idx=0, id='chunk2')
The title of a document is extracted from the first few paragraphs:
from knwler.api import *
text ="""
Lovelace's educational and social exploits brought her into contact with scientists such as Andrew Crosse, Charles Babbage, David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone and Michael Faraday, and the author Charles Dickens, contacts which she used to further her education. Lovelace described her approach as "poetical science" and herself as an "Analyst (& Metaphysician)". When she was eighteen, Lovelace's mathematical talents led her to a long working relationship and friendship with fellow British mathematician Charles Babbage. She was particularly interested in Babbage's work on the analytical engine. Lovelace first met him on 5 June 1833, when she and her mother attended one of Charles Babbage's Saturday night soirées with their mutual friend, and Lovelace's private tutor, Mary Somerville.
"""
title = await extract_title(text, config=Config(extraction_model="gemma3:12b"))
print(f"Extracted title: {title}")Extracted title: Ada Lovelace's Scientific ConnectionsThe summary of text or chunks is also handy for reporting:
from knwler.api import *
file_path = Path("./HumanRights.pdf")
if not file_path.exists():
url = "https://knwler.com/pdfs/HumanRights.pdf"
metadata, bytes = await fetch_url(url, no_cache=True)
with open(file_path, "wb") as f:
f.write(bytes)
content = await parse_pdf(file_path)
summary = await extract_summary(content, config=Config(extraction_model="gemma3:12b"))
print(f"Extracted summary: {summary}") Extracted summary: This document is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, a foundational text establishing a common standard for achieving human rights and freedoms for all people and nations. It asserts that all individuals are born free and equal in dignity and rights, without discrimination, and are entitled to fundamental rights such as the right to life, liberty, security, and a fair trial. The declaration emphasizes the importance of protecting these rights through the rule of law, promoting understanding, and preventing recourse to rebellion against oppression, ultimately aiming for a world where everyone enjoys freedom from fear and want.Export
With the API methods above you can turn the resulting output to a NetworkX graph, HTML and many other formats.
Let’s first recreate a simple graph:
from knwler.api import *
from pathlib import Path
import os
file_path = Path("./People.pdf")
if not file_path.exists():
from knwler.api import fetch_url
url = "https://knwler.com/pdfs/People.pdf"
metadata, bytes = await fetch_url(url, no_cache=True)
with open(file_path, "wb") as f:
f.write(bytes)
schema = Schema(entity_types=["person", "country"], relation_types=["is_from"])
doc = await extract(file_path, schema=schema, config=Config())Turning this into a NetworkX graph is as simple as:
g = await create_network(doc)
print(f"Graph has {len(g.nodes)} nodes and {len(g.edges)} edges.")Graph has 17 nodes and 8 edges.You can use this NetworkX graph in all sorts of ways, notably to apply graph analytics (page rank and centrality in general). Clustering in Knwler goes a step beyond standard graph analytics since it adds cluster labels to help understand what a cluster is mainly about:
from knwler.clustering import cluster_graph
g = await cluster_graph(doc.graph)
for cluster in g.clusters:
print(f"Cluster {cluster['id']} with topics {cluster['topics']} contains nodes: {cluster['members']}")Identified 8 clusters
Cluster 0 with topics ['International Research Collaboration'] contains nodes: ['Elena Petrova::person', 'Samuel Okoye::person']
Cluster 1 with topics ['Biodiversity Data Integration', 'Field Ecology'] contains nodes: ['Elena Petrova, Samuel Okoye::person', 'Lucía Fernández::person']
Cluster 2 with topics ['Data Engineering', 'International Collaboration'] contains nodes: ['Elena Petrova, Samuel Okoye, Lucía Fernández::person', 'Noah Williams::person']
Cluster 3 with topics ['Ethical Implications', 'Predictive Modeling'] contains nodes: ['Elena Petrova, Samuel Okoye, Lucía Fernández, Noah Williams::person', 'Sofia Dimitriou::person']
Cluster 4 with topics ['Computational Sustainability', 'International Research'] contains nodes: ['Elena Petrova, Samuel Okoye, Lucía Fernández, Noah Williams, Sofia Dimitriou, Hassan Al-Masri::person', 'Mei-Ling Chen::person']
Cluster 5 with topics ['Cross-Regional Data Analysis', 'Sustainability'] contains nodes: ['Arjun Mehta::person', 'Mei-Ling Chen, Elena Petrova, Samuel Okoye, Lucía Fernández, Noah Williams, Sofia Dimitriou, Hassan Al-Masri::person']
Cluster 6 with topics ['Environmental Risk Assessment', 'Long-Term Studies'] contains nodes: ['Hassan Al-Masri::person', 'Sofia Dimitriou, Elena Petrova, Samuel Okoye, Lucía Fernández, Noah Williams::person']
Cluster 7 with topics ['Virtual Collaboration', 'Knowledge Integration'] contains nodes: ['Elena Petrova, Samuel Okoye, Lucía Fernández, Noah Williams, Sofia Dimitriou, Hassan Al-Masri, Mei-Ling Chen, Arjun Mehta::person', 'Oliver Grant::person']Finally, if you want to export a document graph to HTML you can assemble things into a dictionary and hand it over to the renderer.
html = await render_html(asdict(doc))with open("output.html", "w") as f:
f.write(html)